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A complete Dictionary of the English Language 
By NOAH WEBSTER, LL.D. 

With additional matter prepared under the direction of 

NOAH PORTER, DD.,LLD„ former President of Yale College, 

Thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged and improved 

under the chief editorial supervision of 

L. BRENT VAUGHAN, PH.B* 

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MODERN 
HORSESHOEING 

% Llnuiical W&otk 



THE SHOEING OF HORSES 

CONTAINING 

Chapters on Anatomy of the Horse's Foot, Growth of the Hoof, Preparing the 
Hoof, The Shoe, Applying the Shoe, Rasping, Various and Best 
Methods of Shoeing, Winter Shoeing, Shoeing of Defect- 
ive Limbs, General Management of the Horse's 
Foot, and Instructions of Farriers, etc. 



By G. FLEMING, V. S., M. A. I., etc. 

Author of various works on Horses and Horseshoeing. 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 



Copyright 1904, by Geo. W. Ogilvie & Co. 



CHICAGO, ILLS. : 

Geo. W. Ogilvie & Co., Publishers. 



LIBRA* r of CON" 
Tw« Copies Received 

FEB I! 1904 

*] Copyright Entry 
^jUs* I (-It* <f" 
CLASS *- XXc. No. 

72 / r / 

' COPY 8 



INTRODUCTION 



TJie art of farriery had its beginning in the earliest ages. 
The horsemen of by-gone centuries pondered over the problem 
of the preservation of the horse's foot in an efficient and 
healthy state, and the nailing of a plate of metal to the outer 
margin of the hoof was evolved. This was a long stride, and 
while it increased the services of the animal a, hundredfold, 
it brought a train of attendant evils in the shape of diseases 
which are unknown to the unshod horse. Then came the 
study of the anatomy and the functions of the foot, and so- 
called scientific methods of shoeing have) been in vogue ever 
since. 

To preserve the horse's foot is the aim and object of the 
farrier, but it is a demonstrated fact that the predominating 
principles and practice of this art have been a source of 
great suffering to the horse and a subsequent loss) of its 
service. This animal, pre-eminently the most useful to man, 
is the one upon which is inflicted, either wantonly, or through 
sheer ignorance, or thoughtlessness, the greatest amount of 
cruelty. Lameness, in one form or other, is so prevalent that 
observers have concluded it must result from some specific 
cause, and, not unnaturally, attention has been directed to 
the various modes of management practiced in relation to 
the horse 's foot, to the manner of shoeing, and, in particular, 
to the way in which the hoof is prepared for the shoe. 

Convinced that very much suffering results from imperfect 
knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, and of the true func- 
tions of its various parts, and from consequent malpractice in 
its treatment, especially in the application of the shoe, which 
is needed solely to prevent the undue waste and wear caused 
by severe labor over hard, rough, and unyielding roads, the 
author exhibited. mu,ch .thoughtful cars in the preparation of 
this wosiv'' <)n1 ' ftnedj ^ s ^ i s > with -scientific knowledge and 
practical arcqumntMh c witH the stibject in hand; and it has 
been most gratifying to find so general a concurrence among 
the writers jri'iheiruttfv- "'or»<ieinnatipn of the common but 
unscient'i^c' ,pw ti< £ring away the bole and frog as a 

necessary preparation for shoeing. The unanimity exhibited 
on this most important point sinks into comparative insig- 
nificance all differences of opinion on minor points. The fol- 
lowing pages are a clear and able exposition of the views, 
not only of the author on the subject, but also of very many 
of the most enlightened veterinary surgeons of the day. 



CONTENTS 



PAUH 

Prefaton Note . ... . . 8 

ImPORTAS CE OF THE ABT ...... 9 

Anatomy op the Horse's Foot 12 

The Hoof 19 

The Wall 19 

The Homy Sole 21 

The Horny Frog 22 

The Coronary Frog-Band or Periople 23 

Growth of the Hoof ... 29 

Shoeing 34 

Preparing the Hoof • 37 

Levelling the Wall 38 

Shortening the Wall ....... 39 

Paring the Sole » 45 

Faring the Frog 50 

Opening-wp the Heels 51 

The Shoe • • . . 53 

Weight . 54 

Calkim . .57 

Size ... a 59 

Objects to be attained . 60 

Pattern of Shoe recommended 62 



g CONTENTS. 

The Shoe — continued, 

PAQB 

Varieties of Shoes ....... . 69 

Material . 70 

Nail-holes .«..».... 70 

ArPLYING THE SHOE ....... 76 

Hot and Cold Fitting . . 78 

The Nails . 81 

Driving the Nails 81 

Conclusion of the Optvaliun . .... 82 

Rasping ..... 83 

Laying down Clips 86 

Various Methods of Shoeing ... . . 90 

Winter Shoeing 95 

Shoeing of Defective Limbs 99 

General Management of the House's 2Ax<t . . . . 101 

Streets and Roads . . . . 103 

Instruction of Farriers .... 105 



PRACTICAL HOKSESHOEINGL 



IMPORTANCE OF THE ART. 

It requires bat little observation and reflection, one 
would think, in order to arrive at the conclusion that the 
art of "Horseshoeing" is not only an important one, so 
far as civilization and the ordinary every-day business of 
Life is concerned, but that the successful utilization of the 
horse, together with its welfare and comfort, in a great 
measure depend upon the correctness of the principles on 
which its practice is based, and the mode in which these 
principles are carried out by the artisan. 

For proof of this we have but to glance at the immense 
traffic in our great towns and cities, in which the horse 
figures so prominently, at the same time remembering 
that, without a defence to its hoofs, this invaluable ani- 
mal would be almost— if not quite— valueless, in conse- 
quence of the hardness of our artificial roads, and the 
great efforts demanded from him ; or, studying the anat- 
omy and functions of the limbs and feet, to call to mind 
how these are wonderfully calculated to serve most essen- 
tial purposes in locomotion and weight-sustaining, and 
how necessary it is, at the same time, that their natural 
adaptability be as little as possible thwarted or annulled 
by the interference of man in his endeavor to protect or 
aid thenL 



10 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

From the earliest ages, the horse's foot and its envel- 
op, the hoof, have been looked upon by horsemen as the 
principal region of the animal's body to which care and 
attention should be directed ; as, when these become in- 
jured or diseased — no matter how perfect and sound the 
other parts may be — the quadruped's services are dimin- 
ished or altogether lost. 

Consequently, the preservation of these in an efficient 
»nd healthy state has ever been the aim of those who 
valued the horse for the immense advantages his services 
were capable of conferring on mankind; and, in later 
years, those who have been moved by the sacred impulse 
of humanity toward the lower creatures have not forgot- 
ten how much the noble animal may suffer from unskilful 
management of its feet, through the neglect or ignorance 
of those who have the special care of these organs. 

At a very early period in the domestication of the 
horse, and particularly in Western regions, it must have 
been soon discovered that at certain seasons, on particu- 
lar soils, and especially when called upon to perform any 
great amount of travelling and load-carrying, the horn 
composing the hoof underwent an amount of wear greater 
than Nature could compensate for, and that the living 
sensitive structures within, becoming exposed and irrita- 
ted by contact with the ground, gave rise to pain, lame- 
ness, and inability to work 

To guard against this serious result, the ingenuity of 
man must have been severely tested in devising a suitable 
and durable protection for the ground-surface of the hoof; 
and, among the many contrivances proposed, the most 
notable, and by far the most valuable, has been the de- 
vice of nailing a plate of metal to the outer margin or 
wall of the hoof. 

The antiquity of this invention is very great ; and it ia 
probable that for many centuries the shoe was considered 



IMPORTANCE OF THE ART. U 

as nothing more than a simple defender of the hoof from 
the damaging effects of attrition, and occasionally as an 
aid in securing the animal's foothold during progression 
on slippery ground. 

As time advanced, however, and the services of the 
horse became increased a hundredfold by the application 
of this ingenious and simple expedient, the sciences of an- 
atomy and physiology began to embrace the horse in 
their domain ; and, crude as they were at first, it is to be 
feared that, when they were extended to the investigation 
of the structure and functions of the foot, the useful and 
comparatively harmless protection of early days was made 
subservient to the most varied and fantastic theories, and 
it must be admitted that for many years horseshoeing, so 
far from proving a boon to horse-owners, and a preserver 
of horses' feet, has been far from yielding the benefits its 
scientific and reasonable application should afford ; indeed, 
it would be no exaggeration to assert that the predomi- 
nating principles and practice of this art have been emi- 
nently destructive to horses, and a source of great loss to 
their owners. 

These principles were founded on a misconception of 
the functions of the foot, and of the part assumed by the 
hoof in locomotion ; and their speedy popularization was 
due to the fact that they were congenial to the whims of 
fashion, and were deemed essential to the improvement 
of Nature: commending themselves to unreasoning and 
unreasonable minds like the fashions of cropping horses' 
and dogs' ears, cutting, nicking and docking tails, and 
other cruel fancies of depraved tastes. 

The amount of injury inflicted by an unscientific 
method of shoeing may be very much greater than a cur- 
sory inquiry would lead one to believe. To those experi- 
enced among horses, and who have directed their atten- 
tion closely to the subject, the proportion of animals 



12 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

whose utility is directly or indirectly impaired by im- 
proper treatment of their feet must appear excessive, 
when compared with the other causes of inefficiency. In* 
deed, maladies of the feet and limbs, due, more or less, to 
faulty shoeing, form a very large percentage of the case* 
usually met with in veterinary practice. 

An art, therefore, which has so much influence for 
good or evil, so far as the usefulness and comfort of the 
horse are concerned, surely deserves the serious study of 
all those who are interested in that animal. A good sys- 
tem, founded on the teachings of anatomy and physiology 
and perfected by daily experience, must prove of immense 
benefit to horse and owner ; while a bad system, conduct- 
ed in ignorance or carelessness, cannot but bring about 
pain and speedy uselessness to the animal and loss to the 
proprietor. 

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 

One of the primary considerations for those who have 
the shoeing and management of the horse's foot, should 
be the acquisition of a knowledge of its structure and 
functions in health : not a profound knowledge, certainly, 
such as the scientific veterinarian requires, but sufficient 
to enable them to understand the situation, relation, text- 
ure, and uses of the parts of the organ with which they 
have more particularly to deal. If the artisan does not 
possess this knowledge, is it possible that he can practise 
his handicraft to advantage, or. minister effectually to the 
varied requirements of this organ ? It must be admitted 
that he cannot do so ; arid it is from neglect of this funda- 
mental consideration that so much improper and vicious 
shoeing prevails, and that so many horses are crippled 
and prematurely worn out. By the majority of farriers 
the foot of the horse is looked upon as little, if any thing, 



ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 13 

more than art insensible block of horn which they may 
carve and mutilate with impunity and as suits their fancy, 
and for which nothing more is necessary than the attach- 
ment, by an unreasonable number of nails, of a clumsy 
mass of iron that may not only be unsuitable for its re- 
quirements, but positively injurious to it and the other 
parts of the limb. The art of farriery in this country has 
never received a scientific development, but has ever been 
a mere affair of routine and tradition. Such should not 
be the rase ; and allusion is only made to this matter here 
in order to urge most strenuously the necessity for far- 
riers being, properly instructed in the elements of their 



Fig. 1. — Section of the Horse's Foot. — a a, Skin of leg; b b b, extensor tendon of 
foot ; c, its insertion into the foot-bone ; d d. capsular ligament of joints ; d' d', 
flexor tendon of foot inserted into sole of foot-bone (s) ; e e, flexor tendon of pastern 
inserted at / into the small pastern bone, i ; g. shank or large metacarpal bone : //, 
large pastern bone; k, navicular bone; I, foot or pedal bone; m, ligaments of na- 
vicular bone connected with deep flexor tendon; n, sensitive laminae, dovetailing 
with horny laminae, ri ; o, plantar cushion ; p, coronary cushion ; g, horny frog ; r, 
wall of hoof ; t, sensitive membrane of frog and sole ; u, the face of the navicular 
bone over which the flexor tendon plays — the seat of navicular disease. 

art, and made to comprehend as much as may be required 
of the construction and functions of the very important 
organ upon which they are destined to exercise their skill. 



14 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

The horse's foot may be said, for practical purposes> 
to be intended not only as an organ of support and de- 
fence (or offence), but also as that part of the limb in 
which the efforts created elsewhere are concentrated, and 
as the instrument through which propulsion and progres- 
sion may be mainly effected. It is also largely endowed, 
in a natural state, with the sense of touch, which enables 
the animal to travel with safety and confidence on rough 
as well as even, and on soft as well as hard ground. 

When we come to examine it in a methodical and 
careful manner, we find that it has for its basis the last 
three bones of the limb — the small pastern, navicular, and 
coffin or pedal bone. The latter is more particularly the 
foundation of the foot, and is the nucleus on which the 
hoof is moulded, and which in shape it much resembles. 
At its highest point in front, the large extensor tendon 
of the foot is inserted, and in the middle of its lower face 
or sole is implanted the powerful tendon which bends or 
flexes the foot ; these tendons are the chief agents in pro- 
gression. An elastic apparatus surrounds them and a 
portion of the pedal bone, and the whole is enveloped by 
a membrane that attaches the hoof in the closest possible 
manner to its outer surface. Into each of the wings or 
sides of the bone (for it is crescent-shaped, the horns ex- 
tending backward on each side) is fixed a large plate of 
cartilage that rises above the hoof, where it may readily 
be felt, and which has important relations with its fellow 
on the opposite side, as well as with other elastic bodies 
admirably disposed to sustain weight, prevent jar, and 
insure that lightness and springiness which form so strik- 
ing a feature in the horse's movements. The navicular 
bone is a narrow piece, placed transversely between the 
wings of the coffin bone, and is intended to throw the 
flexing tendon farther from the centre of motion, and thus 
increase its power; the tendon plays over its posterior or 



ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 15 

lower face, and this disposition, together with the rela- 
tions established between it and the pedal bone through 
their connecting ligaments, and the bend the tendon 
makes in passing over it, cause this part of the foot to be 
one particularly liable to disease, and one especially deserv- 
ing of attentive study. 

The elastic apparatus of the foot consists of (1) the 
lateral cartilages just mentioned; (2), a prominent ring or 
cornice surrounding the upper border of the pedal bone 
usually known as the " coronary-substance," but which 
might be more aptly designated the " coronary cushion" ; 
this fits into a corresponding concavity in the inner and 



v— 




— c 



; / IIP"-* 

fill pHpp— -* 

Fig. 2.— Horse's Foot divested of its Hoof.— a a, Perioplic ring; b 5, perioplic or 
coronary fissure; c c c, coronary cushion covered with villi; d d, white zone; fff, 
vascular laminae terminating- in villi, g. 

upper margin of wall of the hoof, and, besides acting as 
an elastic body or cushion, performs the important func- 
tion of secreting this wall or crust of the horny envelop ; 
(3), a triangular body — the plantar cushion, known to 
farriers as the " fatty " or " sensitive frog " (to distinguish 
it from the horny frog which immediately covers it), ad- 
mirably disposed between the wings of the coffin bone, 
with a view to protect and sustain the flexor tendon dur- 
ing its efforts, as well as to diminish concussion by its 
own resiliency and by the connection it has with the elas- 
tic cartilages. From its position at the back part of the 
foot, and the importance of the parts it covers, this portion 



16 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

of the elastic apparatus derives much interest, and must 
not be overlooked by the farrier. 

Besides the elastic apnaratus of the foot more immedi- 
ately in connection with the pedal and navicular bones, 
we have the wonderful arrangement of living membrane 
enveloping these parts, whose office appears to be the se- 
cretion and attachment of the horny box we designate the 
"hoof;" to it large quantities of blood are conveyed by 
the ultimate ramifications of the arteries proceeding to the 
foot, and from it by a complex distribution of veins aris- 
ing from these ultimate arterial divisions, to the great 
venous trunks that pass up the limb. The terminal twigs 
of the sensory nerves of the foot are also freely and wisely 
distributed in its substance in the form of exceedingly fine 
filaments, which endow the organ with a sufficient sense 
of touch to enable it to perform its varied functions with 
safety and precision. A peculiar and striking disposition 
of this membrane can be observed around the front and 
sides of the pedal bone, when the hoof has been removed 
by steeping the foot for some time in water. This dispo- 
sition consists in the elevation of the membrane into par- 
allel vertical leaves, which extend from the coronary cush- 
ion to the lower border of the bone, and to a certain dis- 
tance within its wings. These leaves, which resemble in 
appearance those on the under side of a mushroom, are 
known as the "vascular" or "sensitive laminae," and 
number between six and seven hundred; their chief use 
seems to be to afford a wide and close attachment for the 
wall of the hoof, within which, through their agency, the 
pedal bone is, as it were, suspended ; so that the relations 
between bone and hoof are not so rigid as if they were di- 
rectly united to each other. These laminae are exceeding- 
ly vascular and sensitive, and when they become inflamed 
through bad shoeing, excessive travelling, or other cause, 
the horse suffers the most excruciating pain, and in a 



ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 17 

large majority of cases the chronic inflammation that re- 
mains produces serious alterations in the structure and 
formation of the hoof, leading to more or less lameness 
and diminished utility. 

Besides entering into the formation of these leaves, 
this membrane covers the other parts of the foot within 
the hoof, as a sock does the human foot, and endows it 
with a high degree of vitality and secretory power ; it 
overspreads the coronary and plantar cushions, as well as 
the sole of the pedal bone, and its surface in these parts 
is thickly studded with myriads of tufts or " villi," which 
give it the appearance of the finest Genoa velvet. These 



— a 




-e 
f 



\ 1 ^WlilK 

r/#lHWPfMW " ll 

Fig, 3.— Sensitive Sole of Horse's Foot.— a, Cartilaginous bulb3 of the heels, cov- 
ered by sensitive membrane; &, inflexion of the coronary cushion; c, middle cleft 
or lacuna; d d, plantar laminae ; e, limit between the coronary cushion and plantar 
laminae ; // branches of the plantar cushion ; g g g g, termination of the lamina? in 
villi; h h, sensitive membrane of sole covered with innumerable fine tufts or villi ; 
6, prolongation of the coronary cushion into the lateral lacuna. 

minute processes vary in length from one-eighth to more 
than one-fourth of an inch, and are best observed when a 
foot, from which the hoof has just been removed by mace- 
ration, is suspended in clear water. Examined with the 
microscope, they are found to be merely prolongations 
from the face of the membrane, each composed of one or 
two minute arteries, which branch off into an exceedingly 
fine net-work, and end in hair-like veins ; a nervous fila- 
ment has also been traced into the interior, so that these 
2 



18 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

tufts are not only vascular, but also sensitive. They play 
an essential part in the formation of the hoof, and their 
relations to that covering must not be neglected by the 
farrier in his treatment of it. 

This is all that need be said at present with regard to 
the anatomy of the living parts of the horse's foot ; we 
have referred to it merely to show that this organ is not 
a crude block of insensitive matter, but a most wonder- 
fully-constructed apparatus, possessed of qualities which 
are not to be found in any other part of the body. In 
constructing the foot of this noble creature, Nature sought 
to do more than merely protect the extremely delicate 
and exquisitely sensitive structures contained within the 
hoof from injurious contact with the ground. This re- 
doubtable difficulty is comparatively insignificant in com- 
parison with the other portions of the task she set her- 
self. It was necessary that the lower extremity of the 
limb of such a glorious creation as the horse, should be an 
organ endowed with the acutest sense of touch for the in- 
stantaneous perception of the consistence and inequalities 
of the ground over which it moved ; and, while it pos- 
sessed this quality in a high degree, it was also indispen- 
sable that it should be gifted with the properties of resist- 
ance, pliability, and lightness to the extent necessary for 
the support and progression of the body, in addition to 
the rigidity essential to impulsion, the elasticity and sup- 
pleness needful to avert reactions or jar, and the durabil- 
ity and rapidity of renovation demanded by incessant 
wear. Here we have a combination of requirements 
whose simultaneous existence in one organ might almost 
be deemed incompatible, so opposite do they appear : in- 
sensibility with a delicate sense of touch ; resistance with 
lightness, rigidity with elasticity, and suppleness with 
durability. 



THE HOOF. 



19 



THE HOOF. 

The "hoof" plays no small share in rendering the 
horse such a: complete animal as it is ; and, as this is the 
portion of the foot which comes more immediately under 
the care and manipulative skill of the farrier, its study 
should be a little more detailed and minute, perhaps, than 
that of the internal structures. For convenience and sim- 
plicity in description, it has been divided into u wall" or 
" crust," " sole," " frog," and " coronary frog-band," or 
" periople." It is essential that the shoer should under- 
stand the structure, nature, and uses of these parts. 

The Wall of the hoof is that oblique portion which 
covers the front and sides of the foot from the coronet to 




Ftg. 4. — Profile of a Five-year-old Front Hoof that had never been shod; ex- 
ternal Face. — Angle of wall at toe 51°; a a, frog-band or periople; 5, wall; c, 
toe, between which and d is the " outside " or " inside " toe or "mammilla," and be- 
tween e and /the "outside " or "inside" heel 

the ground, and is suddenly inflected or bent inward at 
the heels, toward the middle of the sole to form the 
" bars," which are merely prolongations of its extremities ; 
it constitutes the circumference or margin of the hoof, is 
the part of the horny box that is intended more especially 
to come into contact with the ground, and is that on 
which the iron defence rests, and through which the fax'- 



20 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

rier drives the nails that attach it. The inner face of its 
upper edge is hollowed out into a somewhat wide concav- 
ity, which receives, or rather in which rests, the coronary 
cushion ; this concavity is chiefly remarkable for being 
pierced everywhere by countless minute openings which 
penetrate the substance of the wall to some depth ; each 
of these perforations receives one of the " villi " or minute 
tufts of blood-vessels already mentioned as prolonged 
from the face of the membrane covering the interior of 
the foot. Below this concavity, which receives a large 
share of the horse's weight, the wall is of about equal 
thickness from top to bottom ; on the whole of its inner 
surface are ranged thin, narrow, vertical horny plates, in 
number corresponding to the vascular laminae, between 
which they are so intimately received or dovetailed — a 
horny leaf between every two vascular ones — that in the 
living or fresh state it is almost impossible to disunite 
without tearing them. The inner face of the lower mar- 
gin is united in a solid manner to the horny sole through 
the medium of a narrow band of soft, light-colored horn, 
situated between the two, and which we may call the 
" white line " or " zone." 

The outer surface of the wall is generally smooth and 
shining in the natural healthy state. 

The dimensions of the wall vary in different situations ; 
in front it is deepest and thickest, but toward the quar- 
ters and heels it diminishes in height and becomes thin- 
ner ; at its angles of inflection — the points of the heels — if. 
is strong. Its structure is fibrous ; the fibres pass directly 
parallel to each other from the coronet to the ground, 
each fibre being moulded on, as it is secreted by, one of 
the minute tufts of blood-vessels lodged in the cavity at 
the coronet. Microscopically, the wall is composed of 
minute cells, closely compressed, and arranged vertically 
Around each fibre, and horizontally between the fibres. A 



THE HOOF. 21 

point of much practical interest is to be found in the fact, 
that the fibres on the surface or outside of the wall, are 
very dense, close, and hard : so dense, indeed, that the 
wall of an unmutilated hoof looks like whalebone ; but to- 
ward the inner surface they become softer, more spongy, 
and easily cut. 

The Horny Sole is contained within the lower margin 
of the wall, and is a concave plate covering the lower face 
of the pedal bone. In structure it is fibrous like the wall, 
the fibres passing in the same direction, and formed in the 
same manner by the tufts of vessels projected from the 
membrane which immediately covers the bone. These 
tufts penetrate the horn fibres to some depth, and, as in 
the wall, maintain them in a moist, supple condition, such 
as best fits them for their office. 

The sole is thickest around its outer border, where it 



Fig. 5.— Plantar Surface of left Fore Hoof of a Five-year-old Horse that had 
never been shod. — a «, glomes or heels of the frog ; b. median lacuna or t; cleft " 
of the frog ; c c, branches of the frog ; d d, heels, " angles of inflexion,* 1 or " but- 
tresses 11 of the wall of the hoof; e e, lateral lacunae or spaces between the frog and 
bars ; //, inflexions of the wall or " bars ; " #, body of the frog ; h, outside quarter 
of the hoof; i, inside quarter of the hoof; j, point of the frog; k, sole; 1 1, commis- 
sure, " white line, 11 or line of junction between sole and wall ; m n, mammilla ; 0, 
toe. 

joins the wall ; thinnest in the centre, where it is most 
concave. A notable peculiarity in this part of the hoof, 
and one which distinguishes it from the wall, is its ten- 



22 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

dency to break off in flakes on the ground face when the 
fibres have attained a certain length ; the wall, on the 
contrary, continues to grow in length to an indefinite ex- 
tent, and, unless kept within reasonable dimensions by 
continual wear or the instruments of the farrier, would 
in time acquire an extraordinary distortion. The horn 
of the sole, for this reason, is less dense and resisting than 
that of the wall, and is designed more to support weight 
than to sustain wear. 

The " Horny Frog " is an exact reduplication of that 
within the hoof, described as the sensitive or fatty frog. 
It is triangular, or rather pyramidal in shape, and is situ- 
ated at the back part of the hoof within the bars ; with 
its point or apex extending forward to the centre of the 
sole, and its base or thickest portion filling up the wide 
space left between the inflexions of the wall. In the mid- 
dle of the posterior part is a cleft, which in the healthy 
state should not be deep, but rather shallow and sound 
on its surface. 

In structure, this body is also fibrous, the fibres pass- 
ing in the same direction as those of the other portions 
of the hoof; but, instead of being quite rectilinear like 
them, they are wavy or flexuous in their course, and pre- 
sent some microscopical peculiarities which, though inter- 
esting to the comparative anatomist, need not be alluded 
to here. The fibres are finer than those of the sole and 
wall, and are composed of cells arranged in the same man- 
ner as elsewhere in the hoof; they are formed by the 
villi which thickly stud the face of the membrane covering 
the sensitive frog. 

The substance of the horny frog is eminently elastic,' 
and corresponds in the closest manner to the dense, elas- 
tic, epidemic pads on the soles of the feet of such animals 
as the camel, elephant, lion, bear, dog, cat, etc., and which 
are evidently designed for contact with the ground, the 



THE HOOF. 23 

support and protection of the tendons that flex the foot, 
to facilitate the springy movements of these creatures, 
and for the prevention of jar and injury to the limbs. 

In the horse's foot, the presence of this thick, coin* 
pressible, and supple mass of horn at the back of the 
hoof, its being in a healthy unmutilated condition, and 
permitted to reach the ground while the animal is stand- 
ing or moving, are absolutely essential to the well-being 
of that organ, more especially should speed, in addition 
to weight-carrying, be exacted. 

The frog, like the sole, exfoliates or becomes reduced 
in thickness at a certain stage of its growth ; the flakes 
are more cohesive than those of the sole. 

It must be remarked, however, that this exfoliation of 
the sole and frog only takes place when the more re- 
cently-formed horn beneath has acquired sufficient hard- 
ness and density to sustain contact with the ground, and 
exposure to the effects of heat, dryness, and moisture. 

The " Coronary Frog-Band" or " Periople" is a con- 
tinuation of the more superficial layer of the skin around 
the coronet and heels, in the form of a thin, light-colored 
band that descends to a variable depth on the outer sur- 
face of the wall, and at the back part of the hoof becomes 
consolidated with the frog, with which it is identical in 
structure and texture. It can be readily perceived in the 
hoof that has not been mutilated by the farrier's rasp, 
extending from the coronet, where the hair ceases, to 
some distance down the hoof; it is thickest at the com- 
mencement of the wall, and gradually thins away into 
the finest imaginable film as it approaches the lower cir- 
cumference of this part. When wet it swells and softena, 
and on being dried shrinks, sometimes cracks in its more 
dependent parts, or becomes scaly. 

The fibres composing it are very fine and wavy, as in 
the frog; they likewise spring from villi which project 



£4 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

from the true skin immediately above the "coronary 
cushion." 

The use of this band would appear to be twofold : it con- 
nects the skin with the hoof, and thus makes the union of 
these two dissimilar textures more complete, its interme- 
diate degree of density and its great elasticity admirably 
fitting it for this office ; and it acts as a covering or pro- 
tection to the wall at its upper part, where this is only in 
process of formation, and has not sufficient resistance to 
withstand the effects of exposure to the weather. The 
greatest thickness and density of the band correspond to 
the portion of the wall in which the villi or vascular tufts 
are lodged, and here the horn is soft, delicate, and readily 
acted upon in an injurious manner, by external influences. 

Thus far, then, we have rapidly glanced at the 
anatomy and uses of the various parts entering into the 
composition of the horse's foot, and its horny box — the 
hoof. It may be necessary, before we pass to the con- 
sideration of the latter, as a whole, to allude to the struct- 
ure and uses of that narrow strip of horn, whose pres- 
ence every farrier or veterinary surgeon is cognizant of, 
but whose character and functions have been strangely 
left out of consideration by all anatomists hitherto. I re- 
fer to the "white line" or "zone," the slender inter- 
mediate band that runs around the margin of the sole, 
and connects that plate of horn so closely to the wall as 
to make their union particularly solid and complete. 
When preparing the border of the hoof for the reception 
of the shoe, this part is easily distinguished by its lighter 
color (in a dark hoof), and by its being softer and more 
elastic than either the sole or wall, between which it is 
situated. It would appear to be secreted by the villi 
which terminate the lower end of the vascular laminae, 
and the horny leaves of the wall are also received into its 
substance — a circumstance that renders the junction of 



THE HOOF. 26 

the two more thorough. I think there can be no doubt 
that the principal use of this elastic rim of horn placed 
in such a situation, is to obviate the danger of fracture 
to which the inferior part of the hoof — particularly the 
sole — would be liable, if the junction between the hard 
and comparatively inelastic sole and wall was directly 
effected without the interposition of such a body. 

It may be noted, that it is through this soft border of 
horn that gravel and foreign matters usually find their 
way to the sensitive parts of the foot, and there excite 
such an amount of irritation as to lead to the formation of 
matter, and cause much pain and lameness ; an accident 
which the older farriers termed " gravelling." 

In viewing the horse's hoof as a whole, and in the un- 
shod state, we find that it presents several salient charac- 
teristics, the consideration of which ought to dominate or 
serve as a guide in framing rules for the observance of far- 
riers in the practice of their art. The first of these is the 
direction in which the wall grows in a healthy condition. 

Viewed as it stands on a level surface, the hoof may 
be said to be somewhat conical in shape, its upper part 
being a little less than its base ; and although, geometri- 
cally, its shape may be described as the frustum of a cone, 
the base and summit of which have been cut by two ob- 
lique planes — the inferior converging abruptly behind to- 
ward the superior — yet the circumference of the hoof does 
not offer that regularity which this description might im 
ply ; on the contrary, in a well-formed foot, we find that 
the outline of its inferior or ground border, is notably 
more salient on the outer than the inner side, giving it 
that appearance which has been designated the " spread." 

A cone being intersected by two planes oblique to its 
axis, and not parallel to each other, gives a good idea, 
nevertheless, of the obliquity which forms so marked a 
feature in the hoof. The degree of obliquity of the front 



26 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

part or toe, and of the upper surface, varies with the 
amount of growth ; but where this has been counterbal- 
anced by a proper degree of wear, it will be remarked 
that this obliquity corresponds to the inclination of the 
pastern-bones immediately above the hoof, when the horse 
is standing. 

It will be obvious that this inclination also varies with 
the breeding of the animal, and the conformation of the 
limbs; so that no definite degree can be assigned. But 
it must be pointed out, that giving the angle of 45°, 
as is done in almost every treatise on shoeing and the 
anatomy of the foot, is a grave error. Looked at in pro- 
file, a hoof with this degreee of obliquity would at once 
be pronounced a deformity — the slope is too great (Fig. 
6) ; and if the farrier were to attempt to bring every foot 




Fig. 6. 



he shod to this standard, he would inflict serious injury, not 
only on the foot itself, but also on the back tendons and 
the joints of the limbs, Careful measurement will prove 
that the obliquity of the front of the hoof is rarely, if ever, 
in a well-shaped leg and foot, above 50°, and that it is, in 
the great majority of cases, nearer 56°. The sides or 
" quarters " of the wall are less inclined — though the outer 
is generally more so than the inner ; while the heels are 
still more vertical, and the inner may even incline slightly 
inward. Viewed in profile, the posterior face of the hoof 



THE HOOF. 27 

will be observed to have the same degree of slope as the 
front face. In height, the heels are usually a little more 
than one-half that of the toe ; both heels are equal in 
height. 

These features, as will be seen hereafter, are sufficiently 
important to be constantly remembered. The other char- 
acteristics are to be found on the lower or ground face of 
the hoof — the most important, so far as the farrier's art is 
concerned. 

In a natural condition, the whole, or nearly the whole 
of this face comes into contact with the ground, each part 
participating more or less in sustaining the weight thrown 
upon the limb. On soft or uneven soil, the entire lower 
border of the wall, the sole, bars, and frog, are subjected 
to contact ; Nature intended them to meet the ground, and 
there to sustain the animal's weight, as well as the force 
of its impelling powers. But on hard or rocky land with 
a level surface, only the dense, tough crust and bars, the 
thick portion of the sole surrounded by them, and the 
elastic, retentive frog, meet the force of the weight and 
movement ; and, in both cases, not only with impunity, 
but with advantage to the interior of the foot, as well as 
the limb. The horn on this face is, as has been said, 
dense, tough, and springy to a degree varying with the 
parts of which it is composed; while its fibres are not 
only admirably disposed to support weight, secure a firm 
grasp of the ground, and aid the movements of the limbs, 
but are also an excellent medium for modifying concussion 
or jar to the sensitive and vascular structure in their vi- 
cinity. 

The whole circumference of the wall meets the ground, 
and from the disposition of its fibres, the arrangement of 
the cells which enter into their composition, and its rigid- 
ity, it is admirably fitted to resist wear and sustain press- 
nre. It projects more or less beyond the level of the sole, 



B8 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

and the space measured between the white zone within it 
and its outer surface gives its exact thickness. This is a 
fact not without interest to the farrier in the operation of 
attaching the shoe by nails, as these have to be driven only 
through this dense horn — which in good hoofs cannot be 
said to much exceed half an inch in thickness — and in pro- 
portion to its thinness is the necessity for carefulness and 
address on his part, in order to guard against wounding or 
bruising the sensitive textures. 

The sole is more or less concave from its junction with 
the wall ; nevertheless, even on moderately firm ground, 
a portion of its circumference, which is generally the thick- 
ness of the wall, takes a share in relieving the latter of 
pressure. This is also a fact to be borne in mind. In soft 
ground, the whole of its lower surface is made to aid in 
sustaining the weight and prevent the foot sinking. But 
it must be noted that the pressure of the lower face of the 
pedal bone on the upper surface of the sole can never be 
very great, else the sensitive membrane between them 
would be seriously injured. This injury is prevented by 
the coronary, and, to a lesser extent, by the plantar cush- 
ion, which largely retard the descent of the bono on the 
floor of the horny box. 

The frog, on both hard and soft ground, is an essential 
portion of the weight-bearing face. In the unshod, 
healthy foot it always projects beyond the level of the 
sole, and seldom below that of the wall at the heels ; in- 
deed, it is found, in the majority of hoofs, either oa a 
level with the circumference of this part, or beyond it, so 
that its contact with the ground is assured. Hence its 
utility in obviating concussion, supporting the teridons, 
and, on slippery ground, in preventing falls. In palling 
up a horse sharply in the gallop, or in descending a steep 
hill, the frog, together with the angular recess formed by 
the bar and wall at the heel of the hoof, are eminently 



GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 29 

•erviceable m checking the tendency to slip ; the animal 
instinctively plants the posterior portions of the foot ex- 
clusively on the ground. 

Dark hoofs are generally the best; they owe their 
color to the presence of minute particles of black pig- 
ment, which contains a notable proportion of iron, and 
are somewhat resisting and indestructible. 

A good hoof should have the wall unbroken, its outei 
face smooth and even ; the angle at the front not less than 
50° — the lower or ground face of the front hoof should 
be nearly circular in outline — the sole slightly concave at 
the circumference, deeper at the centre ; the border of 
the wall ought to be thick at the toe, gradually thinning 
toward the heels, but at the inflexion or commencement 
of the bar a strong mass of horn should be found ; the 
bars should be free from fracture, and the frog moderately 
developed, firm and solid. 

The hind foot should possess the same soundness of 
horn, though it differs from the fore hoof in being more 
oval in outline from the toe to the heels; the sole is also 
more concave, the frog smaller, and the heels not so high. 
The horn is usually less hard and resisting — a circum- 
stance perhaps due to the hind feet being more frequently 
exposed to humidity in the stable than the fore ones. 



GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

In any treatise on shoeing, the growth of the hoof can- 
not be left out of consideration, as on it the foot, in an 
unshod condition, depends for an efficient protection, 
while without this process the farrier's art would quickly 
be of no avail. 

In its unarmed state, the hoof being exposed to con« 
tinual wear on its lower surface, from contact with the 



50 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

, ground on which the animal stands or moves, is unceaa 
ingly regenerated by the living tissues within. We have 
already referred to the special apparatus which is more 
immediately concerned in this work of regeneration, and 
pointed out that the wall with the laminae on its inner 
face * is formed from the coronary cushion at the upper 
. part of the foot ; the sole from the living membrane cov- 
ering the lower face of the pedal bone ; and the frog from 
the plantar cushion. It has been also mentioned that this 
dead horny envelop, instead of being merely in juxta- 
position with this exquisitely sensitive secretory mem- 
brane, is everywhere penetrated to a certain depth on its 
inner face (with the exception of the portion of the wall 
covered with the horny leaves) by multitudes of minute 
processes named villi, which are not only concerned in 
the growth of the horn-fibres, acting as moulds for them, 
and endowing the hoof with that degree of lightness, 
elasticity, and toughness, which are so necessary to its 
efficiency, but also make this insensitive case a most use- 
ful organ of touch. 

The growth of the horn takes place by the deposition 
of new material from the secreting surface ; this deposi- 
tion is effected at the commencement or root of the fibres ; 
where the horn is yet soft, and its incessant operation 
causes these fibres to be mechanically extended or pushed 
downward toward the ground in a mass. Once formed 
they are submitted to no other change than that of be- 
coming denser, harder, less elastic, and drier, as they 
recede farther from the surface from which they origi* 
nated. 

So regular is this growth, generally, in every part ol 

* It is generally stated that the hornv leaves are iormed by the sensi- 
tive ones, with which they are in such close union. That this is an error, 
the microscope, physiology, and pathological experience, abundantly tes- 
tify. 



GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 31 

the hoof, that it would appear that the secreting mem- 
brane is endowed with an equal activity throughout. 

But, though this equality in the amount of horn se- 
creted over so wide a surface is an undoubted fact, yet it 
must not be forgotten that, under the influence of certain 
conditions, the growth or descent of the corneous mate- 
rial may be effected in an irregular manner, either through 
a particular portion of the secretory apparatus assuming 
a more energetic activity, or being hindered more or less 
in its function. 

For instance, the way in which the foot is planted on 
the ground has a most marked influence, not only on the 
amount of horn secreted, but also on that subjected to 
wear. 

When the superincumbent weight is equally distrib- 
uted over the lower face of the hoof, the foot may be said 
to be properly placed as a basis of support to the limb. 
But when, through mismanagement or defective form, 
this base is uneven — one side higher than the other, for 
example — the weight must fall on the lowest part to a 
greater degree than the highest ; thus causing not only 
disturbance in the direction of the limb and its move- 
ments, but considerably modifying the growth of the 
horn. This growth is diminished at the part subjected to 
most pressure — in all probability from the smaller quan- 
tity of blood allowed to be circulated through the secre- 
tory surface ; while to the side which is subjected to the 
least compression, the blood is abundantly supplied, and 
the formation of horn is consequently augmented. This 
is a fact of much importance and practical interest in far- 
riery, as it demonstrates that any irregularity in the dis- 
tribution of the weight of the body on the foot has a pre* 
judicial effect on the secreting apparatus of the organ, 
and, as a result, on the form of the hoof. 

When the weight is evenly imposed on the foot, this 






32 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

apparatus, being uniformly compressed throughout itt 
extent, receives everywhere an equal quantity of the horn* 
producing material. 

It is the same with the wear of the hoof. A just dis- 
position of the weight is a necessary condition of the 
regularity of wear. While the animal is standing on un- 
shod hoofs, the wear of horn is slight ; it is in movement 
that it becomes increased, and this increase is generally in 
proportion to the speed, the weight carried, nature of the 
ground, and whether its surface be wet or dry. Each 
portion of the lower face of the hoof — wall, sole, bars, and 
frog — should take its share of wear and strain ; but it 
will be readily understood that this cannot be properly 
effected if the weight is thrown more upon one side than 
the other; that part which receives the largest share will 
be subjected to the greatest amount of loss from wear, 
and this, with the diminished secretion of horn, will tend 
to distort foot and limb still more. 

In a well-formed leg and foot the degrees of resistance 
of the different parts of the hoof are so well apportioned 
to the amount of wear to be sustained, that all are equally 
reduced by contact with the ground, and the whole is 
maintained in a perfect condition as regards growth and 
wear. 

The amount of growth, even in a well-proportioned 
foot, varies considerably in different animals, according 
to the activity prevailing in, or the development of, the 
secreting apparatus ; and in this respect the operations 
of the farrier, as we will notice hereafter, are not without 
much influence. 

It may be laid down as a rule, that the horn grows 
more rapidly in warm dry climates, than in cold wet ones; 
in healthy energetic animals, than in those which are soft 
and weakly ; during exercise, than in repose; in young, 
than in old animals. Food, labor, and shoeing, also add 



GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 33 

their influence ; while the seasons are to some extent con- 
cerned in the growth and shape of the hoof. In winter 
it widens, becomes softer, and grows but little ; in sum- 
mer it is condensed, becomes more rigid, concave, and 
resisting, is exposed to severer wear, and grows more 
rapidly ; this variation is a provision of Nature to enable 
the hoof to adapt itself to the altered conditions it has to 
meet : hard horn to hard ground, soft horn to soft ground. 
In this way we can account for the influence of locality 
upon the shape of the foot. On hard, dry ground, the 
hoof is dense, tenacious, and small, with concave sole, 
and a little but firm frog ; in marshy regions, it is large 
and spreading, the horn soft and easily destroyed by wear, 
the sole thin and flat, and the frog an immense spongy 
mass which is badly fitted to receive pressure from slightly 
hardened soil. In a dry climate, we have an animal small, 
compact, wiry, and vigorous, travelling on a surface 
which demands a tenacious hoof, and not one adapted to 
prevent sinking ; in the marshy region we have a large, 
heavy, lymphatic creature, one of whose primary require- 
ments is a foot designed to travel on a soft yielding sur- 
face. Change the respective situations of these v wo horses, 
and Nature immediately begins to transform them and 
their feet. The light, excitable, vigorous horse, with its 
small vertical hoofs and concave soles, so admirably dis- 
posed to traverse rocky and slippery surfaces, is physically 
incompetent to exist on low-lying swampS ; while the un- 
wieldy animal, slow-paced and torpid, with a foot perfectly 
adapted to such a region — its ground face being so exten* 
sive and flat that it sinks but little, and the frog developed 
to such a degree as to resemble a ploughshare in form, 
which gives it a grip of the soft, slippery ground — is but 
indifferently suited for travelling on a hard, rugged sur- 
face. In process of time, however, the small concave 
hoof expands and flattens, and the large flat one gradu 
3 



34 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

ally becomes concentrated, hardened, and hollow, to suit 
the altered physical conditions in which they are placed. 

The degree of health possessed by the horn-secreting 
apparatus at any time has also much to do with its activ- 
ity in generating new material. When its blood-vessels 
become congested or contracted from some cam.e or other, 
its function is in a proportionate degree suspended, and 
the hoof grows in an irregular manner, and may be altered 
in thickness, texture, and quality. 

In the ordinary conditions of town work and stable 
management, I have observed that the wall of a healthy 
foot — its chief portion, so far as farriery is concerned — 
grows down from the coronet at the rate of about one- 
quarter of an inch per month, and that the entire wall of 
a medium-sized hoof has been regenerated in from nine to 
twelve months. 

The process of growth can be greatly accelerated and 
exaggerated by irritating the surface which throws out 
the horn material. Thus a blister, hot iron, or any other 
irritant or stimulant applied to this part, will induce not 
only a more rapid formation, but one in which increased 
thickness is a marked feature. f 



SHOEING. 

. In the foregoing pages we have considered the foot 
of the horse in a natural condition, as perfectly adapted 
for the performance of most essential functions : as a 
basis of support while the animal is standing, and, in ad- 
dition, as a powerful propelling instrument during pro- 
gression. 

We have also pointed out that the hoof which envel- 
ops it, like a huge finger-nail, is admirably constructed 
and endowed as an aid and protection fco this organ, its 



SHOEING. 35 

atility mainly depending on the texture and arrangement 
of the horny matter of which it is composed, and the 
peculiar disposition of this in fibres of variable density, 
size, and elasticity. 

But these qualities of the hoof, it was again remarked 
are intimately dependent upon the manner in which the 
horn-secreting surface performed its office ; as if this be- 
comes diminished, weakened, or unable to supply suffi- 
cient material to compensate for undue wear, the protect- 
ing case soon ceases to guard the living tissues within 
from injury. 

In a natural state, when the equilibrium between 
growth and wear is destroyed, and the latter takes place 
in a rapid and unusual manner, the animal is compelled to 
rest until the worn hoof has recovered its proper thick- 
ness ; for acute pain results when the living parts are ex- 
posed, or when the wasted horn is insufficient to guard 
them against being bruised by the ground. 

In an artificial condition, when the horse is employed 
on hard roads, broken ground, and in a humid climate, to 
carry and draw heavy loads at different degrees of ve- 
locity, and forced to stand on stony pavements during 
resting hours, his hoofs are unable to meet the many se- 
vere demands imposed upon them. 

The wear more than counterbalances the growth ; and, 
therefore, it becomes an absolute necessity, if the animal is 
to be continuously and profitably utilized, that an artifi- 
cial protection, sufficient to meet the exigencies of the 
case, be employed. 

The lower border of the wall is, as we have mentioned, 
the part most deeply concerned in resisting wear and 
strain in the unshod state, as on it the stress chiefly falls ; 
it is, consequently, the portion of the hoof that suffers 
most severely from undue wear, and that which alone re« 
quires protection. 



36 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

This fact must have been brought prominently before 
the primitive shoers thousand of years ago, as the earliest 
specimens of shoes yet discovered are narrow, and in 
width do not much exceed the thickness of the wall. To 
guarantee this from wear was to increase the value of the 
horse a thousandfold, and the simply-wrought, narrow rim 
of iron, boldly and securely attached to the hoof by a 
few rudely-shaped nails, was sufficient for the purpose. 

But having fastened on this light metallic armature, 
and allowed it to remain fixed to the hoof for a lengthened 
period, it would soon be discovered that the balance be- 
tween growth and wear was again disturbed, but this time 
in favor of growth ; for the wall being removed from con- 
tact with the ground, and the rate of growth continuing 
as in the unshod state, the hoof, instead of becoming di- 
minished as before, now became abnormally overgrown 
and caused inconvenience. Then the shoe required to be 
taken off, and the superfluous growth either removed by 
instruments and the shoe replaced, or the animal made to 
travel without the iron defence until it was again needed 
when the hoof had become too much worn. 

Such was horseshoeing, in all probability, in early 
times, and such it is at the present day where utility is 
not sacrificed to stupid theories or foolish practices. 

The evils attending the usual methods of shoeing are, 
as has been said, very serious and glaring ; and the chief 
of these do not so much depend upon the faulty conforma- 
tion of the shoe — though this is, in the majority of cases, 
not to be exempted from blame — as upon the treatment 
the hoof receives before and after the application of that 
article. 

To illustrate these evils, and to show how unreason- 
able the modern art of farriery is, as well as how it should 
be practised, we will commence with the foot of the un« 
»hod colt, and, in the simplest words at our command, in 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 37 

dicate the ordinary procedure in applying shoes to its 
hoofs for the first time, pointing out, at each step in the 
process, what is wrong and what is right, and giving 
reasons for the adoption of the principles which ought to 
guide the farrier in this most important operation. 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 

We will premise that the young horse about to have 
its hoofs armed for the first time is tolerably docile, and 
that its tranquillity is not likely to be severely disturbed 
by the strange manipulations to which its limbs are to be 
subjected. For many months previously, its attendants 
have had this ordeal in view, and in handling it have not 
forgotten to manipulate its legs and feet quietly and gently 
in something the same fashion that the farrier is likely to 
do — even going so Tar in the lesson as to tap lightly on its 
uplifted hoof, as if nailing on the shoe. The young creat- 
ure is intelligent enough to perceive that in this no harm 
or punishment is intended, and it soon becomes familiar 
with the practice. 

The farrier who shoes a young horse for the first or 
second time should be a patient, good-tempered man, and 
an adept in the management of horses and handling their 
limbs. If the operation is to be performed in a forge, 
there should be as little noise of hammers or glare of fires 
as possible — every thing ought to be conducted quietly 
steadily, and with kindness. Harsh treatment, or unskil-' 
ful handling, should be severely reprehended, and all re- 
straint or contention ought to be dispensed with — at any 
rate until gentleness and patience have been diligently em- 
ployed and have failed. If accustomed to companions, it 
should have one or two horses beside it in the forge. 

In describing the construction of the foot, we referred 




88 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

to the shape of a well-formed hoof. We will presume the 
animal before us — like nearly every unshod horse — has 
hoofs of this description. 

The first step, usually, in the preparation of this part 
for the shoe is to level and shorten the lower margin of 
the wall, pare the sole and frog, and open up the heels, 
These details may not be carried out so fully in the first 
shoeing as subsequently, but we will note them as they are 
commonly practised during the horse's lifetime. 

Levelling the Wall is an important operation, which 
but few artisans rightly understand or care to do properly. 
It has been stated that unequal pressure on one side of 
the foot — one side of the wall being lower than the other 
— is not only injurious to the whole limb by the undue 
strain it imposes on the joints and ligaments, but that it 
tends to deform the hoof and modify the growth of the 
horn. 

It is, therefore, most essential that both sides of the 
hoof be of equal depth, in addition to the whole lower 
margin of the wall being level ; and to make them so, the 
rasp should be applied to this border in an oblique man- 
ner, across the ends of its fibres, to bring them to the 
same length. 

A good idea of the necessary reduction to be effected 
on either side will be derived from an inspection of the 
limb from the knee or hock downward when placed firmly 
and straight upon the ground. Any deviation of the hoof 
to the inside or outside — most frequently it is the former 
— can be readily detected by looking at the leg and hoof 
in front. 

The ground surface of the foot should be directly trans- 
verse to the direction of the pastern, and it is in maintain- 
ing or restoring this relation that care and skill are re- 
quired. If the pastern is perpendicular to the shank-bone, 
and the two aides of the lower margin of the foot are di 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 39 

rectly transverse to the line passing down from these, then 
the wall has only to be lowered equally on both sides, if 
it be too high. 

It must be remembered, in levelling both sides of the 
lower surface of the hoof, that the difference of a few frac- 
tions of an inch between them will cause considerable, and 
perhaps very hurtful, oscillations of the weight thrown on 
the limb. 

A properly-instructed farrier should be able, at a glance 
across the upturned foot, to discover whether it is tolerably 
level. In Fig. 7 I have shown what is meant by a prop- 



FiG. 7. 

erly-levelled hoof, the dotted line a a being directly trans- 
verse to the vertical line #, and the distance from a to c 
of one side being equal to that from a to c of the other. 

Shortening the Wall. — Reducing the wall to proper 
dimensions is another important matter in connection with 
the preparation of the foot for the shoe. We have seen 
that the natural and moderate wear of the unshod hoof is 
compensated for by the incessant downward growth of the 
horn, and that this process of wear and regeneration main- 
tains the proper dimensions and just bearing of the foot. 
But on the application of the shoe a barrier is at once op- 
posed to the wear, while the growth is not interfered with ; 
consequently, the hoof continually increases in length and 
obliquity — a change which causes derangement in the dis- 
position of the weight on the lower part of the leg and 
foot, and other inconveniences. 






40 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

In speaking of the growth of the horn, it was remarked 
that in health this took place in a regular manner over 
the whole surface. It seems rather contradictory, there- 
fore, to assert that the hoof increases in obliquity — ap- 
pears to grow faster at the toe than the heels — when, if 
this statement was correct, their increase in length should 
be always the same. In the unshod hoof this lengthening 
of the toe is not observed ; it only occurs in one that has 




been shod, and is to be accounted for by the fact that the 
shoe, not being nailed back so* far as the heels, is, every 
time the foot falls on the ground, pressed against the horn 
at these parts, and so great is this downward friction or 
pressure that, after a time, not only is the hoof consider- 
ably worn, but the face of the shoe is also deeply chan- 
nelled at corresponding points. Owing to the shoe being 
firmly fixed around the toe, there is no play at this part, 
and hence the apparent inequality in growth between the 
front and back of the hoof— a circumstance more observ- 
able in the fore than the hind foot, from the heels of the 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 41 

former being more under the centre of gravity, and so 
having a greater weight to sustain. 

The pastern and foot form part of a lever that extends 
from the fetlock to the ground and supports* the weight 
of the body. The strain comes perpendicularly from 
the shoulder to the fetlock (Fig. 8, a, c) ; but thence to 
the ground it passes along the pastern and foot (c, d) — 
the extremity of the lever — and these are inclined more 
or less obliquely forward ; hence the charge imposed on 
the limb has an incessant tendency to increase this obli- 
quity by bringing the fetlock nearer the ground (b). To 
resist this tendency, however, we have the two flexor ten- 
dons, and the powerful suspensory ligament at the back 
of the limb, which support this joint and maintain its 
angle. 

But it will be readily understood that the longer and 
^ss upright this lever is, the greater is the strain and fa- 
tigue thrown upon the tendons and ligament. Though 
an oblique pastern may look graceful, and make the 
horse's step more elastic and agreeable to the rider, yet, 
when the degree of obliquity exceeds that intended by 
Nature, great risk is incurred of injury to the supporting 
apparatus. Hence the necessity for maintaining the hoof 
at its normal angle — a necessity, however, which can 
never be met, except at the moment when the animal is 
newly shod ; for no sooner is the equilibrium restored be- 
tween the front and back of the hoof and the shoe fast- 
ened on, than it begins to be disturbed again. This in- 
convenience is inevitable, from the very nature of the 
means we adopt to defend the foot from injury. 

On the other hand, the suspensory apparatus is lessi 
severely taxed, as the lever is short and vertical : or, in 
other words, as the pastern and hoof are upright. But 
this, though relieving the tendons and ligament, throws 
the weight too directly on the bones ; consequently the 






42 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

jar to these and the whole limb is great, and even dan- 
gerous; while the back parts of the foot are unduly 
strained to relieve them. 

It must be, then, very evident, that levelling and 
bringing the ground-face of the hoof to the necessary 
length — equal on both sides from toe to heel, and justly 
proportioned in depth at toe and heel — is no trifling mat- 
ter, as the soundness of the limb and ease in progression 
are concerned in the operation. Excessive length or ob- 
liquity of hoof strains back tendons and ligament ; a 
hoof long at the toe and low at the heels (Fig. 9, a b) 
increases the obliquity ; on the contrary, when the heels 
are high and the toe of the hoof too short (Fig. 9, c, c?), 
the bones suffer, and the whole limb experiences more or 
less the effects of concussion. 




Fig. 9. 

In both cases progression is fatiguing, imperfect, and 
hurtful to an extent proportionate to the excess. 

Another disadvantage in shoeing, arising from the ten- 
dency of the hoof to increase in length at the toe, and 
also from its form, is the change in the position of the 
shoe itself. The hoof being more or less conical in shape, 
with its base opposed to the ground, it follows that, as it 
increases in length, its lower circumference also widens in 
every direction; the result is that the shoe, although at 
one time accurately fitting the hoof, gradually becomes 
too narrow ; at the same time the increase in length at 
the toe carries the iron plate forward, away from the heels. 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 



43 



This is one more of the inevitable evils of shoeing, but 
which, nevertheless, the skilful workman may greatly pal- 
liate. 

The farrier equalizes both sides of the hoof by apply- 
ing his rasp in a sloping direction to the ground border 
or end of the wall ; he also brings it to its natural angle 
with the same instrument, by removing the necessary 
amount of horn from the margin of the hoof at the toe 
or heels : by reducing the former without interfering with 
the latter, the obliquity of the foot is diminished (as in 
Figs. 9, e, d, 10, a) ; while rasping down the heels and 
leaving the toe untouched increases it (Fig. 9, a, b). 




Fig. 10. 



In the great majority of cases, the heels, for the reason 
stated, require but little interference ; the excess of growth 
is nearly always at the toe, and thus no absolute rule can 
be laid down as to the angle to which the hoof should be 
brought. The practised eye can discern at once whether 
the angle is in conformity with the natural bearing of the 
limb, and will have no difficulty in adjusting it, should it 
not be so, provided there is sufficient horn to spare for this 
purpose. 

We have previously shown that the inclination of the 
front of the hoof varies from 50° to 60°, and probably 
the mean between these two angles will be that usually 
observed. (Fig. 9, g, e, /, is a hoof with about 52° of 
obliquity; g, a, 5, 45° ; ^r, c, d, more than 60°.) 



44 



PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 



On ordinary occasions, causing the horse to stand on 
a level floor, and viewing the hoof in profile a few paces 
off, is sufficient to inform one of the angle ; but to insure 
attention to this matter and prevent mistakes, I have con- 
trived a little instrument for my farriers, which at once 
shows them the degree of obliquity, and gives them an 
indication as to the amount of horn to be removed from 
the toe or heels. 

In the operation of levelling and shortening the hoof, 
is included the general reduction of the wall. 

Provided the hoof, before it comes into the hands of 
the farrier, has the proper inclination and is equal on both 
sides of its ground-face, but is nevertheless overgrown, 
the artisan has then only to remove the excess of growth 
without disturbing the relations between the several re- 
gions of the wall. Or should the hoof be overgrown, too 
oblique, too upright, or unequal at the sides, then in 
remedying the one defect he at the same time remedies 
all. The amount of horn to be removed from the margin 




Fig. 11. 



of the hoof will depend upon circumstances. It may be 
laid down as a rule, however, that there being but little 
horn to remove at the heels, these should only be rasped 
sufficiently to insure the removal of all loo<e material in- 
capable of supporting the shoe ; the quarters or sides of 
the hoof may require a freer application of the rasp, but 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 45 

as the toe is reached, a larger quantity must be removed, 
as in Fig. 11, a, b. The limit to this removal at the front 
of the hoof must be when the wall is almost or quite re- 
duced to a level with the strong unpare*d sole. It must 
ever be borne in mind that, if the wall does not stand be- 
yond the level of the sole, it does not require reducing. 

When the circumference of the hoof has at length been 
brought to a condition fit to receive the shoe, the rasp 
must finish its task by removing the sharp edge, and 
rounding it so as to leave a thick strong border not likely 
to chip. The unshod hoof nearly always exhibits this pro- 
vision against fracture of the wall-fibres. 

Paring the Sole, — After the necessary diminution and 
correction of the obliquity of the hoof, and the prepara- 
tion of the bed for the shoe, the farrier usually proceeds 
to pare the sole. Indeed, while the colt is still at large, 
and before the time has arrived when its hoofs are to be 
shod with iron, the workman is frequently called in to trim 
the hoofs, and paring the lower surface is part of the oper- 
ation. 

This procedure is as barbarous as it is unreasonable, 
especially when carried to the extent that has been ad- 
vised in books on horseshoeing, viz., to pare the sole until 
it springs to the pressure of the thumb. In the great ma- 
jority of forges this most pernicious practice is carried 
out, either because the owner of the horse thinks it neces- 
sary, the groom or coachman that it makes the horse go 
better and the feet to look well, or the farrier that it is 
more workmanlike — though if he is pressed hard for any 
other reason he is unable to give one of a satisfactory 
character. 

Like so many practices relating to the management of 
the horse, this paring of the sole is absurd in the extreme, 
and has not the most trifling recommendation to support it. 
Unfortunately for those who recommend, and also those 



i6 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

who practise it, its evil effects are not immediately appar- 
ent ; a horse with his soles denuded of their horn until the 
blood is oozing through them, may not at the moment 
manifest any great suffering, and may even go tolerably 
sound on a level pavement, though, if he chanced to put 
his foot on uneven ground or a sharp stone, his agony may 
be so acute as to cause him to fall. 

The paring knife is skilfully used to remove all the sur- 
face horn down to that which has been most recently 
formed, or is in process of forming. So anxious is the 
groom or farrier that this, to them, most important opera- 
tion should be carried out, that the soles are filled with 
cow dung, or some other filth, for some time previously, 
in order that the horn may be softened and rendered more 
amenable to mutilation. When this " stopping " has not 
been done, and particularly in hot, dry weather, the sole 
is often so hard that it cannot be touched by the knife, in 
which case, a red-hot iron is applied to the surface to 
soften the horn, or hot ashes are used. Then the bars and 
sole are sliced away until nothing it left but the thinnest 
pellicle of their natural protection, through which not un- 
frequently the blood may be oozing. This is nothing else 
than downright cruelty, and should meet with the punish- 
ment it so well deserves. 

To remove the excessive growth of the wall is an ab- 
solute necessity ; but to denude the sole of its horn is wan- 
ton injury to the foot and cruelty to the animal. This is 
easily accounted for. The sole only increases its sub- 
stance to a certain thickness — never too much — and then 
the excess is thrown off in flakes in a natural manner. In 
this way the sensitive parts are amply protected ; the sole 
can sustain a share of the weight — especially around its 
margin in front, where it is strongest — and meet the 
ground, however rough and stony this may be, with per- 
fect impunity. This is its function. 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 47 

It has been mentioned that the horn is secreted from 
the living surface, and that myriads of beautiful vaseulai 
and sensitive tufts dependent from this surface, enter the 
horn-fibres to a certain depth, and play an important part 
in the formation of the sole. The newly-formed horn is 
soft and spongy, and incapable of resisting exposure to 
the air, but as it is pushed further away from this surface 
by successive deposits of fresh material, it becomes old 
horn, loses its moisture, and in doing so acquires hardness 
and rigidity sufficient to withstand external influences ; 
then it is subjected to wear, and if this be insufficient to 
reduce it sufficiently, it falls off in scales. But the process 
of exfoliation is not a rapid one ; the flakes remain at- 
tached to the solid horn beneath, more or less firmly, until 
it in turn commences to loosen on the surface, and yield 
new flakes, when the old ones separate. This natural 
diminution in the excess of horn of the sole is a most 
beneficial process for the hoof. Horn is a slow conductor 
of heat and cold, and when thick, retains moisture for a 
long period. These flakes, then, act as a natural " stop- 
ping " to the hoof, by accumulating and retaining moist- 
ure beneath, and this not only keeps the foot cool as it 
slowly evaporates, but ensures for the solid and growing 
horn its toughness, elasticity, and proper development. 
In addition to this, every flake acts more or less as a 
spring in warding off bruises or other injuries to the sole; 
and thus the floor of the horny box is protected from in 
jury, externally and internally. 

What occurs when the farrier, following out the rou- 
tine of his craft, or obeying the injunctions of those as ig- 
norant as himself, or so prejudiced as not to be able to 
reason, pares the sole until it springs to the pressure of 
his thumb? Why, the lower surface of the foot — that 
which is destined to come into contact with the ground, 
and to encounter its inequalities, and which more than any 



48 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

other part requires to be efficiently shielded — is at once 
ruthlessly denuded of its protection, and exposed to the 
most serious injury. The immature horn, suddenly strip- 
ped of its outer covering, immediately begins to experi- 
ence the evil effects of external influences; it loses its 
moisture, dries, hardens, and shrivels up ; it also occupies 
a smaller space, and in doing so, the sole becomes more 
concave, drawing after it the wall — for it must be remem- 
bered that the sole is a strong stay against contraction 
of the lower margin of the hoof — and the consequence 
is, that the foot gradually decreases in size, and the quar- 
ters and heels narrow. The animal goes " tender," even 
on smooth ground ; but if he chance to put his mutilated 
sole on a stone, what pain must he experience ! This ten- 
derness on even ground or smoothly paved roads arises 
from the fact, that not only is the entire sensitive surface 
compressed, irritated, or inflamed by the hard, contract- 
ing envelope, and the unnatural exposure to sudden 
changes of heat and cold, but the little sensitive processes 
contained at the upper end of each of the horn-fibres are 
painfully crushed in their greatly diminished tubes, and 
instead of being organs of secretion and the most delicate 
touch, they are now scarcely more than instruments of 
torture to the unfortunate animal. Not only is pain or 
uneasiness experienced during progression, but even in the 
stable the horse whose soles have been so barbarously 
treated, exhibits tenderness in his feet by resting them, 
and if felt, a great increase of temperature will be per- 
ceived. 

Owing to the secreting apparatus of the sole being 
deranged through this senseless paring, the formation of 
new horn takes place slowly, and it is not until a certain 
quantity has been provided to compensate in some degree 
for that removed, that the horse begins to stand easier, 
and travel better. Scarcely, however, has the restorative 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 49 

process advanced to this stage, than it is time for him to 
be reshod, when this part must again submit to be robbed 
of its horn. 

The sole having been pared too thin and concave 
leaves the circumference of the hoof standing much higher 
than if it had been left intact, and apparently too long ; 
so the wall must be still more reduced. This is done, and 
we now have the whole ground-face of the hoof so wasted 
and mutilated, that should the horse chance to lose a shoe 
soon after being shod, the impoverished foot cannot bear 
the rude contact of the ground for more than a few yards, 
and the poor creature is lame and useless. 

The tenderness and lameness arising from this mal- 
treatment are usually ascribed to every thing but the 
right cause, and the most popular is concussion. To avert 
this and protect the defenceless sole, a most absurd shoe 
is required ; and, still more absurd, the natural covering 
is attempted to be replaced by a plate of leather, inter- 
posed between the ground and the sole, and which is 
made to retain bundles of tow steeped in tar or some per- 
nicious substance. It is scarcely necessary to say that 
this artificial covering is but a poor substitute for that 
which has been so foolishly, and with so much careful 
labor, cut away ; indeed, in several respects the leather 
sole, even when only placed between the wall and the 
shoe, and not over the entire surface, is very objection- 
able. 

Seeing, therefore, the natural provision existing in the 
sole of the hoof for its diminution in thickness, when 
necessary, and knowing that the intact sole is the best 
safeguard against injury and deterioration to this region, 
it must be laid down as a rule in farriery — and from 
which there must be no departure — that this part is not 
to be interfered with on any pretence, so long as the foot 
is in health ; not even the flakes are to be disturbed. 
4 



50 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING 

By adhering to this rule, the horse can travel safeh 
and with ease in all weathers and over any roads immedi- 
ately after shoeing; the foot is maintained in a healthy 
condition ; the sole can sustain its share of the weight, 
and thus relieve the wall of the hoof; and should a shoe 
happen to be lost, the animal can journey a long distance 
with but little injury to the organ. 

Another of the many advantages derived from allow- 
ing the sole to remain in its natural condition, is that on 
a soft surface the hoof will not sink so deeply as one 
whose sole has been hollowed out by the farrier, neither 
is it so difficult to withdraw from heavy soil. 

Paring the Frog. — This part of the hoof is that which, 
in the opinion of the grooms and coachmen, most requires 
cutting^ " to prevent its coming on the ground and laming 
the horse ; " and this reason, together with its softer tex- 
ture, causes it to be made the sport of the farrier's relent- 
less knife. It is artistically and thoroughly trimmed, the 
fine elastic horn being sliced away, sometimes even to the 
quick, and in its sadly reduced form it undergoes the 
same changes as have been observed in the pared sole. 
No wonder, then, that it cannot bear touching the ground 
any more than the sole. Strip the skin off the sole of a 
man's foot and cause him to travel over stony or pebbly 
roads ! Would he walk comfortably and soundly ?• 

The artistically-shaped frog soon wastes, becomes dis- 
eased, and at length appears as a ragged, foul-smelling 
shred of horn, almost imperceptible between the narrow 
deformed heels of the pared foot. 

The function of the frog in the animal economy is one 
of great moment, and has already been indicated. It is 
eminently adapted for contact with the ground, and in this 
resides its most important office. To remove it from the 
ground and deprive it of its horn, is at once to destroy 
its utility and its structure, and withdraw from the foot 



PREPARING THE HOOF. 51 

one of its most essential components. The longer the 
frog is left untouched by the knife, and allowed to meet 
the ground, the more developed it becomes ; its horn 
grows so dense and resisting, yet without losing its spe- 
cial properties, that it braves the crushing of the roughest 
roads without suffering in the slightest degree ; it ensures 
the hoof retaining its proper shape at the heels ; is a 
valuable supporter of the limb and foot while the animal 
is standing or moving ; and is an active agent, from its 
shape and texture, in preventing slipping ; its reduction 
and removal from the ground, I am perfectly convinced 
from long observation, have a tendency, directly or indi- 
rectly, to induce that most painful, frequent, and incurable 
malady — navicular disease, as well as other affections of 
this organ. 

The farrier should, therefore, leave the frog also un- 
touched, unless there be flakes which are useless — though 
this is extremely rare ; then these ought to be cut off. So 
particular am I in this respect, however, and so well aware 
am I of the fondness of the workman to cut into this 
part, that I never allow any frogs to be interfered with 
unless I am present. If any gravel has lodged beneath 
the flakes, at the side, or in the cleft — which is most un- 
frequent — this is removed by some blunt instrument. 

To show the value of contact with the ground ; when 
a horse with a diseased frog is brought to me, I at once 
order the hoof to be so prepared or shod that this part 
will immediately receive direct pressure — in a brief space 
the disease disappears. Cases of what grooms call 
" thrush," of many years' duration, and which had defied 
all kinds of favorite dressings, have been cured, and the 
rotten, wasted frogs have become sound and well devel- 
oped in a few months. 

Opening-up the Seels. — Having done every thing pos« 
*ible to ruin the sole and the frog, the farrier proceeds to 



52 



PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 



complete his work by opening-up the heels. This opera- 
tion is quite as injurious — if it is not more so— than muti- 
lating the sole and frog ; it consists in making a deep cut 
into the angle of the wall at the heel, where it becomes 
bent inward to form the bar. In the unshod, natural 
state, or in the unmutilated foot, this is a particularly 
strong portion of the hoof, and serves a very useful pur- 
pose, its utility being mainly owing to its strength. From 
its preventing contraction of the heels, it has been named 
the arc boutant or " buttress " of the foot by the French 
hippotomists. 

When it is hacked away by the farrier's knife, the 
wall of the hoof is not only considerably weakened, but 
the hoof gradually contracts toward the heels. 

Horse dealers and grooms are the chief patrons of 
" well-opened " heels, as they give the foot a false appear- 
ance by making it look wider in this region. 

The fashion of paring the sole until it yields to the 
pressure of the thumb has been perpetuated through the 
ignorance of those who have had the management of 
horses, or the traditions and routine of the artisans who 
have more especially to attend to the requirements of the 
hoofs of these animals. But it must be observed that this 
paring, slicing away the frog, and opening up the heels, 
has been largely due, in later times, to the false notions 
propounded by some writers regarding the functions of 
the foot — such as the descent of the sole, the inability of 
the frog to sustain contact with the ground, and the ex- 
pansion of the back parts of the hoof every time the 
weight was imposed upon it. It is scarcely necessary 
here to say more than that these notions are at least ex- 
tremely exaggerated, and that the practices which were 
maintained to facilitate these supposed functions have 
been productive of an immense amount of suffering and 
loss of animal life. 






THE SHOE. 



53 



It should be ever most strenuously insisted upon, that 
the whole lower lace of the hoof, except the border of the 
wall, must be left in a state of nature ; the horn of the 
sole, frog, and bars, has an important duty to fulfill ; it is 
Jie natural protection to this part of the hoof, and no 
protection of iron, leather, or other material is half so 
efficacious ; in addition, it is a capital agent in sustaining 
weight, and in keeping the whole foot healthy and perfect 
in form. 

THE SHOE. 

The Ordinary Shoe, — The hoof having been prepared 
by the farrier, according to his fancy for the reception of 
the metal plate which is to garnish it, here again we find 
that ignorance prevails and is productive of inconvenience 




Fig. 12. 

and injury. " Improved principles " demand that a par- 
ticular-shaped shoe be applied ; no matter whether the an- 
imal be for saddle, harness, or draught purposes, it must 
have a shoe that rests only on the margin of the hoof— on 
the wall. Therefore, except a narrow border to corre- 
spond with this margin, the upper or foot- face of the shoe 
is bevelled away, so as to leave a wide space between it 
and the sole, and throw all the weight and strain on the 
outer parts of the foot (Fig. li) ; in addition to which dis- 



54 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING 

advantage this space is admirably contrived to lodge 
Btones, gravel, hardened mud, or snow, and in heavy 
ground it increases the suction immensely. But, as will 
be easily understood from the manner in which the under- 
surface of the foot has been treated, this bevelling is ren- 
dered an absolute necessity if the horse is to be preserved 
from immediate lameness. The sole has been pared so 
thin, that so far from its being able to withstand a tolera- 
bly large amount of pressure around its margin — particu- 
larly toward the toe — it must be most carefully preserved 
not only from contact with the shoe, but also with the 
ground. This necessitates a wide surface of metal, which 
increases the weight of the shoe, making it clumsier to 
wear, and affords a large under or ground surface for slip 
ping. And even with a shoe of such dimensions the crea- 
ture cannot travel at ease on stony roads, as the least pres- 
sure of a stone on the tender sole causes him to limp, and 
if the stone lodges in the space between shoe and sole se- 
rious injury is likely to be done. 

Weight. — In addition to the bevelling and the width, 
the shoe in ordinary use has several other glaring defects. 
One of these is generally its excessive weight ; it contains 
an amount of iron far greater than is necessary to protect 
the hoof from the effects of wear. One reason alleged for 
the employment of these cumbrous masses of iron attached 
to the ends of a horse's limbs is that they prevent concus- 
sion to the foot. This any reasonable person will at once 
perceive is a manifest absurdity. The hoof, by its lightness, 
its texture, and the wonderful arrangement of its compo- 
nent parts, is well adapted to avert concussion ; an inelastic 
heavy lump of iron firmly attached to it, and coming into 
forcible collision with the ground at every step, must sure* 
ly be more likely to increase this concussion than diminish 
it. 

There can be no difficulty, I imagine, in estimating the 



THE SHOE. 55 

injury inflicted by unnecessarily heavy shoes. Nature 
formed the lower extremity of the limb with a view to 
lightness, no less than to other important ends. The hoof- 
bone is quite porous and open in texture, to diminish its 
ponderosity, \fithout detracting from its size or stability; 
while the hoof itself is, as we have just noticed, remark- 
able for the manner in which its material is arranged with 
a special intention to confer light-footedness upon the an- 
imal. The reason for this diminution in weight, while it 
is coincident with increase in bulk, is to be found in the 
fact that the muscles principally concerned in moving the 
limb — swinging, straightening, and bending it backward 
and forward — are all situated above the knee or hock. 
The moving power is at one end of a comparatively long 
lever with two arms, while the weight to be moved 
is at the other extremity. The arm of the lever to 
which the power is applied is very short, so that though 
rapidity is gained, more power is lost, and it is palpable 
that every additional ounce added to the foot must be near- 
ly, if not more than equal to a pound at the shoulder. 

In shoeing, this important consideration has been 
strangely overlooked ; and yet we cannot forget that it 
has a great influence on the wear of, not only the shoe, 
but also the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints, and 
even, indirectly, of the entire animal. " If, at the termin 
ation of a day's work," says an eminent French veterinary 
professor, " we calculate the weight represented by the 
mass of iron in the heavy shoes a horse is condemned to 
carry at each step, we shall arrive at a formidable array 
of figures, and in this way be able to estimate the amount 
of force uselessly expended by the animal in raising the 
shoes that overload his feet. The calculation I have made 
possesses an eloquence that dispenses with very long com- 
mentaries. Suppose that the weight of a shoe is two 
pounds, it is not excessive to admit that a horse trots at 



56 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

the rate of one step every second, or sixty steps a minute., 
In a minute, then, the limb of a horse whose foot carries 
two pounds makes efforts sufficient to raise a weight of 
one hundred and twenty pounds. For the four limbs this 
weight in a minute is represented by 120X4=480 pounds; 
for the four feet during an hour the weight is 28,800 
pounds ; and for four hours, the mean duration of a day's 
work in the French omnibuses, the total amount of weight 
raised has reached the enormous figure of 115,200 pounds. 
But the movement communicated to these 115,200 pounds 
represents an expenditure of the power employed by the 
motor without any useful result ; and as the motor is a 
living one, this expenditure of strength represents an ex- 
haustion, or, if you like it better, a degree of fatigue pro- 
portioned to the effort necessary for its manifestation." 

This question of weight is one of no small moment to 
the well-being and utility of the horse, and therefore de- 
mands particular attention. Nature, in constructing the 
animal machine and enduing it with adequate power to 
sustain the ordinary requirements of organization, and 
even to meet certain extraordinary demands, could scarce- 
ly have been expected to provide the large additional 
amount of energy necessary to swing several ounces, or 
even pounds, attached to the lower extremity of the limb. 
A horse shod with a two-pound shoe to each foot, travel- 
ling at the rate of sixty steps in a minute for a period of 
four hours, as has been stated above, carries nearly fifty- 
two tons ; this weight, too, as has been stated, is most dis- 
advantageous^ placed at the end of the long arm of the 
lever. It must be remembered, also, that a two-pound shoe 
is a very moderate affair when compared with many that 
are worn every day in town and country, even by horses 
employed in fast work 

Not only does an unnecessarily heavy shoe fatigue 
and wear out the limbs sooner than a light one, but the 



THE SHOE. 57 

fatigue it induces causes it to be less durable, in propor- 
tion to the quantity of iron. This is accounted for by 
the manner in which the fatigued limbs drag their heavy 
load along the surface of the ground. Heavy shoes also 
require more and larger nails to attach them securely to 
the hoof, and this in itself is an evil of no trifling magni- 
tude, as we shall see presently. 

The shoe, besides being heavy, may offer other serious 
defects. It may be very uneven on its upper bearing sur- 
face—that on which the hoof rests; it may have too 
many clips, and these not well formed or situated ; its 
ground surface may be unequal ; or the holes for the nails 
may be badly placed, and improperly stamped. 

An uneven upper surface is apt to produce lameness, 
from the undue pressure it occasions on limited parts of 
the hoof, and through these to the corresponding living 
textures ; or it may cause the wall of the hoof to split, 
etc. 

Nails badly placed and improperly stamped are a pro- 
lific source of injury to the foot, and the same may be 
said of mal-formed or wrongly-situated clips ; and much 
evil results from the ground-face of the shoe being higher 
at one part than another. This inequality is in nearly 
every case due to the presence of what are termed " cal- 
kins " at the extremities of the branches of the shoe ; or 
to one side of the plate being thicker than the other. 

Calkins. — Calkins are injurious to the limb in propor- 
tion to their height. When smallest they are an evil, as 
they have a tendency, in raising the back part of the foot 
higher than the front, to alter the natural direction of the 
limb, and throw undue strain on the fore part. Intended 
to prevent slipping, their use in this respect is but tem- 
porary, unless they are made high and thick ; when theii 
unfavorable influence on the limb and foot is increased. 
Added to this, from their throwing so much of the weight 



58 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

and strain on the front of the foot, the shoe is more rapidij 
worn away at the toe; so its thickness there must be 
greater, and the shoe in consequence heavier, or the ani* 
mal will have to be more frequently shod. From their 
only lasting for a limited period, the horse, at first in- 
clined to rely on them to preserve his footing on slippery 
roads, becomes timid and unsafe when they are worn 
down to the surface of the shoe. By their form, and their 
projecting so much beyond the level of the plate, they jar 
the limb ; expose it to twists and treads sometimes of a 
grave character ; induce shortening of the flexor tendons ; 
and until they have been considerably reduced, interfere 
with the animal's action. They are also liable to cause 
the shoe to be torn off, by getting caught between paving- 
stones ; while they produce severe lacerations, should the 
horse wearing them happen to kick another animal. This 
is more particularly observed among army horses which 
have calkins on their hind shoes — and especially when in 
camp or picketed. They also throw more strain upon the 
nails and the hoof itself. Neither must it be forgotten 
that they remove the frog from contact with the ground. 

One side of the shoe being higher than the other pro- 
duces the same results as follow when the hoof is unequal 
in this respect. The hind limb is more exposed to this 
evil than the fore one, from calkins being most frequently 
added to the hind shoes, and from the fashion of having 
the inner branch thickened, but not sufficient to compen- 
sate for the height of the calkin on the outer heel. This 
inequality is productive of injury to the fetlock and hock 
joints, and is doubtless not unfrequently the cause of that 
formidable disease of the latter — spavin. 

But even if the farrier has reason to apply shoes whose 
ground-surface is not studded with calkins or any other 
kind of " catch," he, in nearly every case of ordinary 
wear, puts on one which has the whole of this surface 



THE SHOE. 59 

perfectly plane, and not relieved throughout its length or 
width by any thing, except perhaps the groove around 
its outer circumference, in which the nail holes are placed. 
This wide smooth surface is evidently adapted to facilitate 
slipping on smooth pavements, or even on grass or clay 
land. 

Size. — Besides constructing the shoe of a faulty shape, 
a very common practice is to apply one smaller than the 
actual contour of the ground* surface of the hoof. This 
is a grave error, and in all probability arises from the 
desire to make the horse's foot look neat, and to produce 
fine work ; just as the maker of shoes for the human foot 
thinks it the perfection of workmanship to squeeze it into 
the smallest possible space. In the horse, however, small 
shoes are more fruitful of lameness and chronic deformity 
than even the worst-shaped cramped coverings can be for 
the human organ, as the horse is compelled to wear his 
tight plates day and night, and must accomplish all kinds 
of severe labor in them ; while man can relieve himself of 
his torturing uncomfortable boots for at least some hours 
out of the twenty-four. 

We shall allude to the evils of this stupid practice 
hereafter ; in the mean time, it may be sufficient to point 
out, that in selecting and applying a shoe smaller than 
the circumference of the hoof, we are depriving the foot 
and limb of a portion of their stability and weight-bear- 
ing surface. The limb is, in reality, a column of support 
for the body, and the hoof is the base of this column. 
This base is very much wider than any other portion, and 
only commences at the foot, which gradually widens tow- 
ard the ground, so as to make it still more expanded and 
efficient. To diminish this is to frustrate Nature's mode 
of affording security and ease to the limb, and conse- 
quently to do it harm. 

The above are only some of the more prominent evils 



/ 
60 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING 

attendant on the present method of constructing and shap- 
ing the horse's shoe; others, such as making it of bad 
material, altogether unlike the outline of the hoof, etc., 
we will glance at presently. We have only now to con- 
sider what has been for very many years the aim of those 
who, overlooking the real injury done to the foot by the 
barbarous fashion of t paring and rasping, imagined the 
chief, if not the sole, cause of lameness and inefficiency 
arose from the faulty character of the protection applied 
to it, and have sought to avert these by devising various 
kinds of shoes, or other methods of arming the hoof. 

It is scarcely necessary to say, that from their neglect- 
ing, or being unconscious of the harm that resulted from 
the malpractices already indicated, their so-called improve- 
ments have been impotent for good, and have soon been 
consigned to forgetfulness. 

Objects to be attained. — We have stated what were 
the objects to be attained when shoeing was first intro- 
duced. To prevent undue wear of the horn, and at the 
same time to secure a good foothold for the horse, appeal 
v to have been all that was considered essential in the in 
fancy of the art of farriery. And it must be conceded 
that, even now, these are the primary advantages to be 
achieved in constructing a horse-shoe, no matter what 
kind of task the horse that wears it may be required to 
accomplish. 

There can scarcely be a doubt that any thing more 
simple and efficient, and at the same time less expensive, 
than a well-devised iron shoe, cannot at present be pro- 
duced ; nor can the comparatively safe and ready method 
of at f aching it by nails be superseded by any other means 
that we are acquainted with. All tentatives in this direc- 
tion have failed, either because of their inefficiency or 
greater expense. 

Simplicity, cheapness, durability, and perfect adapta 



THE SHOE. 61 

bility to various requirements, are the essentials to be ob* 
tained in horseshoes ; and if one or more of these is ab- 
sent in any particular pattern, it can never be generally 
adopted, and is certain to have but brief success. 

The effects of applying an iron defence to the horse's 
foot, and securing it to the hoof by means of nails, are 
no doubt a source of injury to that organ, and even with 
every care a few of them are unavoidable ; but they are 
increased in number and heightened in intensity when the 
shoe is badly constructed and attached; whereas, by the 
exercise of a little common sense and observation, those 
which are not to be avoided may be mitigated. 

The foot, as has been observed, is a perfect organ, 
formed in harmony with the other parts of the limbs to 
meet every requirement in bearing weight and aiding 
movement. 

The hoof, as an integral portion of the foot, possesses 
these qualities to a high degree, and, but for its inability 
to withstand incessant wear, would need no assistance 
from man, except perhaps a little trimming when it be- 
came overgrown or irregular. Its lower margin — hard, 
narrow, and projecting slightly beyond the sole — is well 
adapted to support weight, withstand wear, and retain a 
hold of the ground ; the concave sole, in addition to its 
assisting the margin to support weight and wear, also 
lends its aid in securing a foothold by its hollow surface ; 
while the angle of the wall at each heel — the " buttress " — 
would appear to be specially designed to afford a most 
pffective check to the sliding forward of the foot as the 
animal suddenly pulls up when moving at a fast pace on 
level ground, or attempts to stop or diminish his descent 
on a slippery declivity. 

Those who study the functions of the animal body, 
and who have to restore these when deranged, well know 
that in their attempts to keep them in a normal condition, 



52 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

or to bring them back to a healthy state, they must 
attend to the laws which govern these functions, and fol- 
low the indications of nature. Therefore I have asked 
myself if it is possible to construct a shoe which, while 
cheaply and easily manufactured by any ordinary farrier, 
will answer the same ends as the lower surface of the foot 
does in a natural state, at the same time protecting and 
supporting it, without interfering to any appreciable ex- 
tent with the healthy functions of the organ. We have 
seen that the ordinary shoe is extremely imperfect, if it is 
not diametrically opposite to what we should consider as 
calculated to protect the foot, secure a good foothold, and 
interfere but little with its functions. Instead of support- 
ing the sole at its strongest part, and thus relieving the 
wall from much of the strain, it rests on the wall alone ; 
this is contrary to natural indications. The wide space 
between sole and shoe affords lodgment to foreign bodies 
which, when the sole is artistically mutilated, may do 
grievous harm, and it also increases suction in soft ground ; 
the hoof shows nothing of this kind. Then again, the 
ground face of the shoe is a wide and smooth plane which, 
instead of preventing slipping, conduces to it ; or thick- 
ened portions project above this face, which disturb the 
balance and injure the limb, while they are only of very 
temporary and questionable service in insuring a firm 
footing. 

In the unshod hoof we see nothing of this, and we are 
brought to the conclusion, which daily experience amply 
confirms, that in addition to the ordinary management of 
the hoof being utterly erroneous, the shoe usually applied 
to it is very far from what it ought to be. 

Pattern of Shoe recommended. — If the sole of the 
hoof has not been mutilated by the knife, it does not re- 
quire to be covered by the shoe, as Nature has furnished 
an infinitely better protection. Wide-surface shoes car 



THE SHOE. 63 

therefore be at once dispensed with, and a narrow shoe, 
made of the very best and toughest iron, adapted for 
travelling on slippery roads, and for aiding foot and limb, 
and sufficient to withstand wear for four or five weeks, is 
all that is required. We will therefore conclude that the 
upper or foot surface should be the whole width of the 
shoe, and plane — not bevelled — for we have seen that the 
sole was destined, particularly at its junction with the 
wall in front, to sustain weight. We also know that it is 
advantageous to the whole foot and limb to allow the sole 
as wide and general a bearing as possible ; so that one 
part may relieve the other — the sole coming to the aid of 
the wall, and the frog interposing to share the fatigue im- 
posed upon both, as well as to relieve the strain on the 
hinder parts of the foot, flexor tendons and limb, and keep 
a firm grasp of the ground by its elastic and adhesive 
properties. 

The shoe applied to the foot, then, should have its 
hoof surface flat, in order that it may sustain the wall and 
as much of this strong portion of the sole as its width 
permits. This is contrary to the usual practice, which 
only allows the wall to rest on a narrow surface, and 
bevels off the remainder of the shoe to prevent contact 
with the sole. Many years' experience of this plane foot- 
surfaced shoe in various regions of the globe, and on feet 
of every kind and quality, have proved the soundness of 
this view. The foot is brought as near to a state of na- 
ture when the greater part of its plantar surface supports 
the weight of the body, as man can hope to achieve while 
submitting the horse to an artificial existence. 

A light thin shoe is always preferable to a heavy thick 
one ; as the narrowness of the metal insures a good foot* 
hold — in this respect imitating the wall — while its thin- 
ness brings the sole, frog, and bars in closer approxima 
tion to the ground. 



64 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

It is impossible to devise a shoe that will successfully 
meet every requirement. The heavy draught - horse, 
doomed to bring into play every muscle in endeavoring 
to move and drag along an enormous load, must have hid 
feet differently armed to the hunter or race-horse, with 
which speed is the chief requisite. Taking into account 
the different character of the horny textures, it is none the 
less true, however, that the same rule holds good in all 
with regard to the sole and frog sustaining weight, though 
in the slow-moving animal it is of less importance, per- 
haps, than in the lighter and more fleet one. The mas- 
sive draught-horse requires toe and heel projections or 
" catches " on the ground-surface of the shoes, to econo- 
mize his locomotive powers and to aid his powerful 
efforts ; though his hoofs none the less require the observ- 
ance of those conservative principles which have been so 
strongly insisted upon, but which are so very seldom ap- 
plied. 

To give the greatest amount of strength and foothold 
to the shoes of the heavy draught-horse, with the least 
amount of weight, should be an object always kept in 
view in making them. But, with this animal, the princi- 
pal object is the preservation of the wall of the hoof in 
order that it may remain sound and strong for the reten- 
tion of the nails ; to assist in effecting this, the sole and 
frog must be preserved intact. 

The form of the shoe in all cases should in outline 
resemble the shape of the ground-surface of the hoof. It 
has been decided that its upper surface must be flat from 
the outer to the inner margin. For horses other than 
those of heavy draught, its width will of course vary ; 
but it is an advantage to have it as narrow as is compati- 
ble, in relation to its thickness, with the amount of wear 
required from it. 

The ground-face of the shoe is the next point for con 



THE SHOE. 66 

sideration. This should always be, if possible, parallel 
with its upper face : that is, the shoe ought to be plane 
on both surfaces, and of the same thickness on both sides, 
not only in the fore but also the hind shoes. This guar- 
antees the foot and limb being kept in a natural position. 
What are termed " calkins " on one or both heels are 
very objectionable, for the simple reason that, as has been 
stated, they raise the back part of the foot higher than 
the front, and throw the limb forward ; unless the hoof 
meets the ground in its natural direction, some portion 
of the leg or foot will be certain to suffer. Therefore, 
whatever device may be employed to prevent slipping 
and secure a hold of the ground should not interfere with 
the natural direction of the limb or foot. If calkins are 
deemed necessary, then the front part of the shoe ought 
to be raised to a corresponding height either by thicken- 
ing its substance or adding a toe piece. In the majority 
of cases, however, the use of these projections is problem- 
atical, and it is certain that hundreds of horses travel 
as safely without them as with them. In many of our 
large towns and cities they are but little employed, and 
with advantage to the legs and feet. For many years I 
have not allowed a calkin to be worn on the shoes of any 
of the horses in my charge, and no complaints of slipping 
or insecure footing have ever been made, nor have any 
reports of horses falling down either on slippery turf or 
the smooth surface of paved streets, from the absence of 
calkins, ever reached me. Having studied the subject oi 
farriery practically, for several years, in the large citieH 
of Glasgow and Manchester before entering the army, and 
having during fifteen years' service been attached to those 
branches in which light or riding horses and heavy or 
draught-horses are employed, my opportunities for obser- 
vation have been extensive. These opportunities have 
led me to form the opinion just given as to the value oi 
5 



56 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

calkins. While stationed with my regiment in Buffalo 
some time ago I obtained permission to dis- 
pense with calkins on the hind-shoes (they are not 
worn on the fore-shoes of cavalry-horses), and though 
the orderly and other duties were somewhat heavy on 
the streets of that city — which are perhaps the most 
slippery in the United States — no accident occurred. 

For more than three years I have been stationed in 
a large and well known city in the Western States with 
nearly three hundred horses — most of which are draught 
— in my charge. The greater portion of these animals 
are employed several hours every day conveying heavy 
loads up and down very badly-made and excessively-steep 
roads ; no calkins or toe-pieces are worn, no slipping is 
ever observed, while the sprains and injuries arising from 
the use of calkins are unknown. 

This immunity I attribute not alone to the absence of 
these projections, but to the care always taken to keep the 
hoofs healthy, properly adjusted, and strong, with the 
frogs resting as much as possible on the ground. 

In attempting to prevent slipping, and to afford a firm 
hold of the ground, without having recourse to calkins, a 
great object is to diminish the wide surface of metal of 
the shoe, without interfering, but as little as possible, 
with its resistance to wear. The simplest method of doing 
this is merely to change the bevel on the foot-surface of 
the ordinary shoe to its ground-surface — making what is 
now concave, flat, and what is now the flat slippery 
ground-surface, concave. The effect is almost magical in 
the security it gives the animal during progression, and 
is best exemplified in the case of the hunter, which is 
usually shod with shoes of this description. Here, again, 
we are only imitating Nature by copying the concavity 
of the sole. There can be no doubt whatever as to the 
advantages tc be gained by using such shoes. The sole 



THE SHOE. 6? 

is pretty well supported, as well as the whole of the wall, 
by the wider surface of metal above, while the narrow 
surface toward the ground affords security of tread. 

For general purposes this is an excellent form of shoe, 
but to make it still more efficient I devised a modification 
of it some years ago, which is an exact reproduction in 
iron of the ground-surface of this part of the hoof; it has 
been employed on the road and in the field with most 
satisfactory results both on the fore and hind feet. 

In this shoe (Fig. 13), instead of the bevel on the 




Fig. 13. 

ground - surface gradually become shallower as it ap- 
proaches the heels, as in the ordinary hunting-shoe, it be- 
comes deeper, until, within an inch or two of the ex- 
tremity of the branch, it has cut down through the thick- 
ness of the inner border ; it then abruptly ceases, leaving 
a sharp catch on each side that, like the inflexion of the 
wall at this part (Fig. 5, d d), affords an excellent grip, 
which moreover lasts until the shoe is quite worn out. 
With a modification of this kind, three important objects 
are secured: 1. The plane upper surface, resting flat and 
solidly on the crust and unpared sole, leaves no space in 
which foreign bodies — as clay, stones, or gravel — may 
lodge, and in heavy ground suction is lessened. 2. The 
metal is only removed from the parts where it can be best 
spared, and where there is least wear ; consequently the 



68 



PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 



shoe is lightened without being weakened. 3. The level 
border and extremities of the branches afford an equal 
bearing for the foot, while the gradually deepening bevel, 
with its sudden check, secures a permanent and powerful 
catching point like that at the angle of the wall. 

The shoe is easily made by any farrier, differing, as it 
does, so little from the ordinary hunting-shoe, and the 
shape is the same for the fore as the hind shoe, except 
that the former is, of course, more circular than the latter, 
to correspond with the shape of the hoof. 

To make its fabrication as simple, speedy, and easy as 
the ordinary shoe, I have it made in two moulds or 
" cresses," which fit into the anvil. These moulds are of 
iron faced with steel ; one (Fig. 14) has two wide, slightly 





Fig. 14. 



Fig. 16. 



curved transverse grooves cut on its surface, the one side 
of each being shallower than the other ; in these each 
branch of the shoe is moulded. The other cress (Fig. 15) 
has also two indentations so formed as to cut the check 
or "sunk calkin." With these moulds, the shoe is as 
easily and quickly made as the common one, and requires 
but little finishing. The moulds may be of three sizes, 
to suit different sized feet and different kinds of work, and 
can be forged by any ordinary blacksmith or farrier. 

This shoe lias been somewhat extensively tried by car- 
riage and saddle horses, and with the very best results. 
For hunting or cavalry purposes it is excellent, particu 



THE SHOE. 69 

larly on slippery grass-land, the sharp point of the catch 
biting the surface of the ground most effectively. 

Clips. — For carriage and saddle horses and hunters, 
each fore and hind shoe should have a clip drawn up at 
the middle of the toe, except in special cases, as when the 
horse overreaches, or, from being required to jump or any 
other cause, is likely to strike any part of the back of the 
fore-legs ; in which case the hind-shoes require to have a clip 
at each side of the toe — none in the middle — the hoof in 
front being allowed to project beyond the shoe ; the latter 
should have all sharp edges carefully removed at this part, 
particularly in the case of hunters. 

Clips, when judiciously placed, are of service in re- 
taining the shoe, and so permitting the number of nails 
to be diminished ; but, as a rule, they should be as few as 
possible, as they are sometimes a source of injury to the 
hoof, particularly if they are situated in too close prox- 
imity to the nails. 

Varieties of Shoes. — Various forms of shoes have 
been from time to time proposed with a view to prevent 
slipping, but only those which have had their ground- 
surface grooved, bevelled, or " toothed," have met with 
any success. In recent times, an American shoe, the 
" Goodenough," has had wonderful qualities claimed for 
it in this respect. It differs but little from the common 
hunting-shoe; it has several trivial projections cut on the 
outer margin of its lower surface, which may prevent slip- 
ping so long as they last, but in a very short time they 
are worn away, and then it has nothing to recommend it 
beyond the ordinary hunting-shoe. The shoe is made by 
machinery. 

Recently, an enterprising manufacturer introduced 
machine-made shoes faced with steel, and grooved 
into two or more sharp ridges on their ground-surface. 
When fitted, these shoes are tempered ; consequently they 






70 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

are harder than iron, should wear for a longer period, and 
may thus be made made lighter. If their hardness does 
not cause them to be more slippery on smooth pavement 
when the ridges have become somewhat worn, than the 
iron shoe, they should be an improvement, and prove 
cheaper than those commonly in use. 

More recently, grooved and surface-cut rolled iron bars 
have been introduced with some success for the manufac- 
ture of horseshoes. 

Material. — Machine-made horseshoes have, unfortu- 
nately, never hitherto proved successful, from the mate- 
rial of which they are manufactured proving either too 
soft — when they were too rapidly worn out — or too hard, 
when they had a tendency either to break or induce slip- 
ping. 

We have remarked how important it is that the shoes 
worn by horses should be as light as possible. It is gen- 
erally a good plan, if a horse wears his shoes more at one 
part than another, so that they do not last a sufficient 
time, to weld in a small piece of steel at that place, in- 
stead of thickening the shoe, and making it heavier. The 
latter method, which is that generally adopted to save 
time, most frequently defeats its purpose — the increased 
weight causing the animal to drag its feet heavily along 
the ground instead of lifting them freely. 

Lightness and durability can only be attained by em- 
ploying the best material. 

Nail-holes. — The form of the shoe having been decid- 
ed upon, the position and shape of the nail-holes, as well 
as their number, have next to be considered. 

The shoe ought to be attached by nails to those parts 
of the wall where the horn is strongest and toughest. In 
the fore-foot, these parts are in front and along the sides 
to the quarters ; there the horn becomes narrow and thin, 
and the nails find less support, and are nearer to the liv- 



THE SHOE. 71 

Jng textures ; this is more particularly the case toward 
the heels, especially the inner one. In the hind-foot, the 
wall is generally strong toward the quarters and heeL 
These facts at once give us an indication as to the best 
position for the nail-holes. In the fore-foot, nails can be 
driven through the wall around the toe as far as the inside 
quarter, and a little nearer the heel on the outside. In 
the hind-foot, they may be driven around the toe, and 
even up to the heels with impunity. 

The form of the nail-holes is a matter of secondary 
importance. The "fullering," or groove, around the bor- 
der of the English shoe, though artistic looking, is a mis- 
take ; it is a waste of labor and of but little, if any, ser- 
vice. What is termed the " stamped shoe," is in every 
way preferable. The square or somewhat oval cavity, 
wide at the top and tapering toward the bottom, gives a 
secure and solid lodgment to the nail-head, which of 
course should fit the cavity accurately ; it does not weak- 
en the shoe, is easily made, can be placed nearer the outer 
or inner margin of the plate as required, and when filled 
with the nail is as capable of resisting wear as any other 
part of the shoe. It is usually better to have the nail- 
holes stamped " coarse " (that is, at some distance from 
the outer margin of the shoe) at points corresponding to 
those parts of the hoof where the wall is strongest ; and 
" finer," where the horn is thin and its fibres short. 

They should not, as a rule, incline outward or inward, 
but be so perforated that the nail-point can take a strong 01 
weak hold of the wall, according to circumstances. If 
the hoof be strong, with plenty of wall at its lower mar- 
gin, then the holes may be stamped coarse, in order to 
take a short but solid hold of it, by driving the nail ob- 
liquely outward (as in Fig. 16, a). 

The number of nail-holes through which nails are to be 
driven should be a3 few as possible. Every nail pene- 



72 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

trating the wall of the foot, no matter how skilfully it 
may be placed, may be looked upon as a source of injury 




Fig. 16. 



to it, by splitting asunder or breaking its fibres. On the 
form and weight of the shoe will greatly depend the 
number of nails required to retain it. With that I have 
described as used in hunting, or as modified by me, and 
which rests firmly on wall and sole, as w^ell as being as light 
as is compatible with a certain period of wear, but few 
nails are needed. The ordinary heavy shoe, on the con- 
trary, is not only damaging to the foot, because it rests on 
such a narrow basis, but also because its weight and insta- 
bility necessitate its being attached by a large number of 
long thick nails, which do great harm to the hoof. 

With care in fitting a properly constructed shoe, and 
skill in placing the nails firmly in sound horn, the usual 
number may be considerably reduced ; so that instead of 
seven to ten being required, it will be found that from 
four to six are equally serviceable, and even these may be 
of diminished size. For shoes worn by medium-sized 
draught-horses, I seldom allow more than six nails in the 
fore and seven in the hind feet ; more frequently the for- 
mer are secured by five nails — three in the outside and 
two in the inside branch of the shoe, and the latter by 
three on each side. 



THE SHOE. 73 

The fewer the number of nail-holes, the greater is the 
necessity for distributing them wide apart ; indeed, it is a 
grave blunder to cluster the nails closely together in the 
hoof, as they break and weaken the horn, and attach the 
shoe much less securely than if they were spread over a 
wider surface. Calkins demand the employment of addi- 
tional nails, from their liability to become fixed between 
stones, and also from the strain they occasion. 

It must always be remembered that the retention of a 
shoe for a sufficient period does not so much depend upon 
the number of the nails attaching it, as upon their disposi- 
tion and upon its exact fitting and solid bearing on the wall 
and sole of the hoof. It should also be borne in mind that 
where there is a clip there ought to be no nail ; lameness 
is not unfrequently produced by a tightly-adjusted clip 
making so much pressure upon the nail and horn within it 
as to cause pain and inflammation. 

We have alluded to the various patterns of shoes in 
use, and pointed out their defects and requirements. As, 
in preparing the hoof, general principles were laid down 
which are applicable to every kind of animal — from the 
race-horse to the mammoth draught-beast employed in our 
large manufacturing cities — so in the shape of the shoe 
and its essential characteristics general principles must 
everywhere prevail. Where speed is demanded, as in the 
race-horse, hunter, etc., lightness and security of foothold 
on soft or slippery land are the chief desiderata; with 
coach and other draught animals of less speed, and which 
are principally used on paved roads, heavier shoes are 
needed to sustain wear, and they must also afford security ; 
but while, with the racer, hunter, and other animals near- 
ly always moving over soft soil, calkins may be resorted 
to without much detriment to the limb and foot, as they 
sink into the ground, on the shoes of horses working or. 
hard roads they are objectionable for the reasons stated ; 



74 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

if they are resorted to, their injurious action should be 
averted by employing a toe-piece of the same height. 

For the race-horse the narrowest iron rim is sufficient, 
provided it is strong enough not to twist or bend. The 
present form of shoe is not objectionable. 

For hunters, hacks, and harness horses, a shoe of the 
modified pattern I have described is well adapted ; even 
the ordinary hunting pattern, but without the calkin on 
the hind-shoe, is infinitely preferable to that used for hacks 
and harness horses. 

Another very excellent form of shoe, introduced by 
a Staff Veterinary Surgeon, and which has been in use 
for some time at New York on riding and harness 
horses, deserves to be mentioned here. It is broader in 
the cover at the toe than heel (Fig. 17) ; and slightly 




Fig. 17. 



curved upward, to remove it from the greater amount of 
wear occurring at this part, and also as a safeguard against 
horses' stumbling. This curve also acts as a clip to prevent 
the shoe moving backward. The foot-surface is quite flat, 
and rests on the sole and wall (Fig. 17). The ground-sur- 
face (Fig. 1 8) is bevelled somewhat like the hunting or modi- 
fied shoe I have described, with the intention of protecting 
the heads of the nails from too much wear, and offering no 
line or cavity whereby a stone can lodge or become wedged. 
The cover or " web " of the shoe is gradually brought very 



THE SHOE. 75 

narrow at the heels, its outer rim corresponding exactly 
with the crust, and the ends of the branches terminating at 




Fig. 18. 

the heels of the foot, thus offering protection to the crust 
only, and without presenting any surface to be trodden 
upon or allowing the least suction in heavy ground. 

The nail-holes are in the centre of the.weJ, and are di- 
rected cutward, by which the nails pass obliquely across 
the fibres of the wall and secure a good hold, without ap- 
proaching the sensitive parts too closely. Three-fourths 
of an inch is supposed to be the height necessary to drive 
the nails. 

There are two small clips — one on each side of the cur- 
vature at the toe — and these not only support the dimin- 
ished number of nails, but require that the farrier fit the 
shoe to the circumference of the foot. The smallest-sized 
nails should be invariably used, and fitted into each nail- 
hole before applying the shoe — the shoe to be light and 
made of good material. This pattern, like the modified 
shoe I have proposed, is suitable for either fore or hind 
feet. 

It may be mentioned that, with the exception of the 
two side-clips at the toe, this shoe is nearly identical in 
shape with that recommended by various well known 
authorities on horse-shoeing. 



76 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 



The foot having been duly prepared, and the form of 
shoe decided upon, the next step is to apply the shoe to 
the hoof, and retain it there by nails. 

In ordinary practice the wall of the foot has been only 
partially diminished, the remainder of the task being left 
until the shoe has to be fitted. This causes the farrier to 
have a very imperfect idea of the proper shape or size of 
the hoof, and he therefore prepares a shoe which he 
guesses is about the size, though in nearly every case it is 
too small ; and, moulding it according to his fancy, he 
proceeds to adjust the foot to it. This is done by cutting 
more or less deeply into the wall at the toe, to make the 
shoe appear long enough by embedding the clip deeply in 
its substance, or " letting it back," as it is termed. The 
consequence is, that when the shoe has been nailed on, 
the basis of support of the limb is abnormally diminished, 
a large portion of the wall of the hoof — its strongest por- 
tion — projects beyond the shoe in front and at the sides, 
and this is afterward carefully removed by the rasp, to the 
great injury of the most essential portion of the hoof. In 
every respect, the foot is made to fit the shape of the shoe, 
and as this is generally prepared with a view only to neat- 
ness or the traditions of routine, the organ suffers, to 
please the fancy or fashion of the unreasoning artisan. 

By our method, the horn having been reduced to 
proper dimensions, the shoe is now made to exactly fit 
the hoof, and to follow the outline of its lower face. The 
part of the hoof intended to be protected by the iron rim 
has been made as level as possible by the rasp, aided a 
very little, perhaps, by the knife ; the surface of the shoe 
destined to rest on this horny bed has also been made 
perfectly level and smooth, particularly at the clip or 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 77 

clips, and it is to be correctly fitted. The farrier should 
so mould the shoe that it be an exact reproduction in out- 
line of the circumference of the hoof. To make it appear 
so when applied, it may be necessary to remove a little 
of the wall at the part corresponding to the clip, merely 
to make the fit more accurate and not allow any portion 
of the shoe to project unduly beyond the horn. 

The length of the shoe will vary with the uses to 
which the horse is put. For racing, hunting, and other 
purposes in which the hind limbs are carried forward to 
an extreme degree in propelling the body, the branches 
of the fore-shoe must on no account extend beyond the 
inflexion of the wall, otherwise the shoe is liable to be 
torn off by the hind-foot, and the horse thrown down. 
The end of the branch should also be carefully rounded 
off and bevelled (as in Fig. 13), so as to leave nothing 
whatever by which the hind-shoe might catch it. 

With harness and draught horses this extreme care in 
shortening and bevelling the heels is not so necessary ; 
indeed, in the heavier and slower-paced animals, it is fre- 
quently advantageous to allow the shoes to be rather 
longer at the heels than the hoof itself. 

As a rule, then, the shoe ought to be wide enough at 
the toe, quarters, and heels, to support the entire thick- 
ness of the wall, but yet not so wide or long as to en- 
danger the opposite limbs by striking them, or run the 
chance of being torn off by the other feet treading upon 
it ; and it should not interfere with the frog, or prevent 
that organ from playing its part in the physiology of the 
r oot. 

The adjustment of the shoe to the exact circumference 
of the hoof is usually effected at the same time as the 
fitting together of the two surfaces of iron and horn 
vrhich are to remain in contact. To render both accu- 
rate, the horse should always be shod at a forge. A bam* 



78 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

raer and anvil are necessary to mould the heated shoe to 
the requisite shape; and it is almost, if not quite, impossi- 
ble to obtain a perfectly true and solid adaptation of the 
upper face of the shoe to the horn on which it is to rest, 
within any reasonable time, unless it be fitted to the hoof 
in a hot state. 

Hot and Gold Fitting. — For very many years the two 
systems of fitting horseshoes in a cold and a heated con- 
dition to the hoofs have been extensively and severely 
tested, and the result has been that cold fitting is, as a 
rule, only resorted to when circumstances prevent the 
adoption of the other method, or when the owner of a 
horse, imagining that the hot shoe injures the foot, incurs 
the risks attending a bad fit to guard against his imagi* 
nary evil. 

It is needless, in a brief essay like the present, to enter 
into a relation of the observations and experiments which 
have established the undoubted and great superiority of 
what is termed " hot " to " cold " fitting. These will be 
found noticed at some length in a work recently published 
by me, entitled " Horseshoes and Horseshoeing." It may 
be sufficient to state that the evils supposed to result from 
fitting the shoes hot to the hoofs are purely chimerical. 
It is true, when the sole is excessively mutilated, should 
the farrier keep the heated shoe too long in contact with 
it, injury would doubtless follow, but this accident is so 
exceedingly rare as to be scarcely ever known, even in 
forges where shoeing is performed in the most objection- 
able manner. The ill effects imagined to arise from hot 
shoeing can easily be traced to the operation of other 
causes, not the least of which is the fashion of paring the 
lower face of the foot. 

The chief objections to cold shoeing are the w ant of 
solidity, the foot being made to fit the shoe, and the pro- 
cess being more difficult and expensive. 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 79 

The defective solidity is patent to every one who has 
had any experience in the matter. It is impossible to 
level th^ ends of the horn-fibres so accurately that they 
will all rest evenly on the surface of the iron ; so those 
which are most prominent soon giving way to pressure, 
the bed of the shoe is altered, and this, becoming loose, is 
either lost, or we have projecting clenches. And even 
should the fibres be made perfectly level, wet softens 
them, causing them to become pulpy and shorter, by 
which means the seat of the shoe is impaired and the nails 
lose their firm hold of the wall. Ample experience on 
active service, as well as that gathered at home during 
peace, has demonstrated the instability resulting from 
cold fitting. 

Owing to the increased trouble and loss of time in- 
curred by this method in attempts to make the shoe fit 
somewhat accurately, but few farriers can afibrd or are 
willing to resort to it. Hence, when it is practised, if the 
shoe is at all like the foot, it is put on, and rasp and knife 
insure the hoof being made to fit it. This proceeding is 
very injurious. 

In hot fitting we have none of these objections. The 
shoe is very readily adapted to the foot ; it is more equal- 
ly applied, and rests solidly on the hoof, so that the nails 
are not broken or displaced by the shoe becoming loose; 
in fine, there is a more intimate contact between the iron 
and the surface of the horn. The very fact of burning or 
fusing the ends of the fibres insures a solid durable bed 
which cannot Jbe obtained otherwise, as this destroys the 
spongy absorbent properties of the horn and renders it 
eminently calculated to withstand the influence of moist- 
ure. The effects produced on horn by the hot iron have 
been compared to those of fire on pieces of wood whose 
ends have been superficially carbonized before being 
buried in the ground. Every one knows that this opera- 



30 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

fcion contributes to the preservation of the wood by pre* 
serving it from the action of humidity. 

Horn is a very slow conductor of heat, and it requires 
a very prolonged application of the hot shoe to affect the 
hoof to any considerable depth. Three minutes' burning 
of the lower face of the sole has been found necessary to 
produce any indication of increase of temperature by the 
thermometer on its upper surface. It is never required 
that the shoe should be applied longer than a few seconds. 

The hot shoe, in fusing the horn with which it comes 
in contact, imprints itself like a seal in melted sealing- 
wax, and in this way the two surfaces of foot and shoe 
exactly coincide ; while no matter how expert the work- 
man may be in using his tools to level the horn in a cold 
state, he can never do it so quickly or so completely as 
may be done by making an impression with the heated 
shoe, and consequently establishing between the lower 
margin of the hoof and the shoe an exact coaptation. 

It may be added that, when the surface of the horn 
has been softened by the action of caloric, the nails enter 
it more readily, the clips and inequalities are more easily 
embedded, and when it recovers its habitual consistency 
after cooling, the union between it and the metallic parts 
which are in contact becomes all the more intimate be- 
cause of the slight contraction that follows the expansion 
produced by the heat. Under these conditions, the horn 
contracts on the shanks of the nails, and retains them 
most securely. 

All the highest veterinary authorities who have studied 
the subject are unanimous in recommending hot fitting in 
preference to cold; the latter is only justifiable when it is 
impossible to adopt the former. The red-hot shoe at once 
disposes of those inequalities which cannot be discovered, 
or removed by tools ; and it shows the workman at a 
glance the bearing of the shoe on the hoof, as well as th* 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 81 

imprint of the nail-holes. Without being reheated, any 
alteration can be readily and at once effected in moulding 
the shoe to the shape of the two. 

The whole surface of the shoe intended to be in con- 
tact with the horn should be distinctly impressed on the 
contour of the hoof, so as to insure the closest and most 
accurate intimacy between the two ; and this carbonized 
surface should not be interfered with on any account, ex- 
cept by the rasp, which is only to be employed in remov- 
ing any sharpness or inequality on the extreme edge of 
the wall that may have been caused in fitting. 

It is necessary to bear in mind that the shoe should 
be fitted at a red heat. Its application then need only 
be very brief, and it is far more effective in producing a 
solid level surface ; it ought not to be applied at a Hack 
heat. Should the margin of the hoof not be sufficiently 
levelled by the rasp before the application of the hot shoe, 
a slight contact of the latter will show the inequalities, 
and these may then be removed by rasp or knife. On no 
occasion ought the shoe to remain longer on the hoof 
than is necessary to produce a solid, perfectly level sur- 
face. 

The Nails. — The shoe having been made to fit the 
hoof exactly, is cooled and finished with the file. It is 
then ready to be attached to the hoof by nails. These 
should not be unnecessarily large, as is too often the case, 
but well proportioned to the size of the shoe. The heads 
should only be sufficient to fill the nail-holes when sub- 
jected to two or three smart blows of the hammer, and 
the shanks thin. It is scarcely necessary to add that the 
nails, like the shoe, should always be made of the best 
iroii. 

Driving the Nails. — In driving the nails into the hoof, 
every one should be made to pass through sound horn. 
It is a mistake to place them where the wall is broken or 
6 



52 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

perforated by previous nails, as this only makes bad worse ; 
and care should be taken to direct each nail so accurately 
that it may make its exit at the desired point in the face 
of the wall at once. Careless or unskilful driving of the 
nails necessitates their being withdrawn several times be- 
fore they are properly implanted, and as each nail, how- 
ever carefully it may be placed in the wall at the first at- 
tempt, is a source of injury by splitting asunder and per- 
forating the fibres, it follows that when several attempts 
have to be made the injury is proportionately increased. 

A short thick hold of the wall is better than a long 
thin one. If possible, no more horn should be included 
within the grasp of the nail than is likely to be removed 
at the following shoeing. By this means the wall is con- 
stantly maintained sound. 

A foot allowed to grow strong in the manner I have 
described, will suffer no inconvenience in having the nails 
driven tightly into the shoe and hoof after they have been 
placed in the wall. 

Where the hoof is thin, as at the quarters and heels 
of the fore-foot, smaller and more slender nails must be 
used, and these must be less tightly driven. The toe 
nails should be first hammered home firmly, then the 
quarter and heel nails lightly. Every nail should form a 
part of the shoe, and the head should barely project above 
it ; when all are solidly disposed, they must be tightly 
" drawn up " at the ends (the points having been twisted 
off previously) by means of the hammer and pincers, using 
the same graduated degree of force as in driving them 
home. 

Conclusion of the Operation. — Nothing then remains 
to be done but to bend down or " clench " the portion 
of nail so drawn up on the face of the wall. This should 
be accomplished by shortening the fragment to a propel! 
length by the rasp, so as to leave just enough to turn 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 83 

over; the rasp also removes the small barb of horn 
raised in drawing up the nail, but without making a 
notch, and then the clench is laid down evenly. No more 
rasping or cutting should be allowed on any pretext 
whatever. 

Rasping. — Very different to this treatment is that 
practised in nearly every forge, where the 'front of the 
hoof is rasped most unmercifully as high as the coronet. 
Indeed, in the majority of books on farriery it is recom- 
mended that, though the wall ought not to be rasped 
above the clenches, this must be done below them ; evi- 
dently ignorant of the fact that nearly as much, if not 
more, harm is done by this operation below than above 
these rivets. 

Those who study what I have said concerning the 
structure of the wall of the hoof will readily enough un* 
derstand the amount of injury inflicted on the foot by 
this rasping. 

Over the whole external face of this part there appears 
to be spread a fine translucent horn, which looks like a 
varnish, whose office in all probability is to prevent undue 
drying of the hoof and consequent brittleness. Imme- 
diately beneath this are the dense resisting fibres of the 
wall, which are intended to resist wear, and are best 
adapted to support a shoe, through the medium of the 
nails ; in fact, they are the fibres which ought to perform 
this duty, as beneath them, toward the inside of the wall, 
the horn rapidly becomes soft and spongy, and more like 
the pith of a rush. 

In consequence of the farrier having neglected to re- 
move a sufficient amount of horn from the lower margin 
of the wall, when preparing the foot for the shoe, or hav- 
ing nailed on a plate too small for its natural circumfer- 
ence, a large piece of the solid material projects beyond 
the shoe, particularly in front and at the sides. This is 



84 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

torn away by the rasp, after the clenches have been laid 
down ; and when this has been done what do we see ? 
The wall of the foot, instead of coming down from the 
coronet to the shoe in all its integrity and evenness of 
slope, as soon as it reaches the clenches is chopped ab- 
ruptly downward, giving the foot a stump or club-like 
appearance, and greatly diminishing the extent of its bear- 
ing surface. The greatest evil, however, is the loss of the 
strong tough horn, whose presence is so necessary to pro- 
tect the lower margin of the hoof and afford support and 
hold to the nails. 

In consequence of its removal, these have nothing to 
retain them but the thin pellicle of soft horn remaining, 
and this being so weak, and exposed to influences it was 
never intended to encounter, quickly dries up, shrivels, 
becomes brittle, and cracks or breaks away in flakes. 
Then we have a hoof deprived of its horn, and in as un- 
natural a condition as can well be imagined; it has been 
so barbarously mutilated as to require the greatest care 
next shoeing to place the nails in a shred of sound horn ; 
the operation of rasping and curtailment being repeated 
each time increases the evil, and should a shoe chance to 
come off on the road — an accident, it may be inferred, 
extremely likely to happen — great damage will be done 
to the pand sole, and the thin, brittle, slit-up wall, and in 
all probability, after a few yards travelling, the animal 
will be lamed. 

The morbid desire to make fine work of shoeing, when 
the horse was first shod, ends in the greatest amount of 
skill and labor being required to continue it, and keep the 
Animal to some extent tit for service, though with de- 
formed feet, seriously damaged horn, and perhaps great 
Buffering. 

The truth of this can be verified by a casual glance at 
the hoofs of almost every horse that passes us in town Of 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 85 

country — though perhaps it is most conspicuous in town- 
shod horses. 

One of the most serious results of this excessive mu- 
tilation of the lower part of the wall is the production of 
a chronic form of laminitis, marked by slight subsidence 
half-way down the front of the foot and to a less degree 
at the side, with an abrupt rounded protrusion of the part 
that is always exposed to rasping. 

This deformity, which causes pain and altered gait in 
the majority of cases, arises from the irritation caused to 
the sensitive parts within by the removal of their natural 
protection, but more particularly from the fact that the 
nails, to retain the shoe, must be driven through a sufficient 
amount of the soft horn, and this brings them so near the 
living parts that they press upon them to such a degree, 
as to set up an acute or subacute inflammation that leads 
to this deformity and its attendant lameness. 

Cases of this description will be found to be by no 
means uncommon among the horses in our streets, and for 
many years I have been able to trace the evil effects of 
the practice from their commencement until the animal 
was a hopeless cripple. 

When the coachman, groom, or farrier's fancy causes 
the rasp to be carried above the clenches to the top of the 
hoof, then of course the injury is greatly aggravated. 

The thin semi-translucent horn that extends in a some- 
what wide, whitish-colored band around the upper part 
of the foot, is chiefly intended by Nature, I think, tc 
protect the fibres of the wall from the effects of external 
physical influences, such as heat and dryness, while they 
are being secreted, or so immature as to be incapable of 
resisting these influences — for it will be remembered that 
the wall is formed at the coronet, and this covering guar- 
antees not only the integrity of the newly-made horn- 
tubes, but also maintains the secreting vessels that enter 



86 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

them in a healthy condition, and competent to supply 
fresh material for wear. 

The destruction of this band, and the rasping of the 
fibres beneath it, is detrimental to the healthy secretion 
of the wall-fibres, and leads to the same result that par- 
ing the sole was shown to do : shrinking of the horn- 
tubes containing the tufts of vessels, wasting of these, a 
diminished supply of horny material in consequence, and 
a thin brittle wall that scarcely appears to grow down 
at all in depth or thickness, and barely allows a shoe 
to be attached to it. Sandcrack and other diseased 
conditions of this part of the hoof are mainly due to this 
cause. 

After applying the shoe in the manner we have de- 
scribed, and laying down the clenches evenly on the wall 
of the hoof, no more requires to be done, unless perhaps 
it be to round a little more the edge of the narrow shreds 
of horn that may project on each side of the clip, and 
thus prevent their liability to split. The angle of the 
face of the hoof should never be interfered with after the 
shoe is nailed on, but should be the same from top to bot- 
tom as in the natural state. This is a matter of great 
importance. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
preservation of the horn of the hoof in its integrity. No 
amount of rasping or artificial treatment can give the 
hoof the beautiful polish it has in its natural state. 

Laying down Clips. — At this stage, it is usual to ap« 
ply the clip or clips more exactly and evenly to the hoof 
before completing the operation of shoeing ; and even 
this apparently trifling matter demands care. With gradu- 
ally decreasing blows of the shoeing hammer, each clip 
should be applied close to the hoof, commencing at the 
bottom, where it springs from the shoe, and ascending to 
its point. Clips should never be driven tight into the 
hoof; this is injurious and may induce disease. 




APPLYING THE SHOE. 87 

When, in due course, the period arrives for re-shoeing 
--usually in a month or five weeks — the hoofs require to 
be reduced to their normal dimensions ; the rules we have 
laid down for guidance are to be followed out in the most 
scrupulous manner. The old shoe is to be gently re- 
moved from the foot by carefully cutting away the clench- 
es with the buffer ; the pincers are then to be inserted 
toward the heel, between the hoof and shoe, and the lat- 
ter prized steadily upward from and across the foot. 
When by this means the nails have been sufficiently 
sprung, they may be withdrawn one by one. Particular 
care must be taken that no clenches or broken nails re- 
main in the hoof, as these are likely to turn the points of 
the succeeding nails into the living parts of the foot. 

Such then, on the one hand, is shoeing as it is usually 
practiced, to the great injury of the horse ; and, on the 
other hand, shoeing as it ought to be performed, so as to 
maintain the comfort and efficiency of this noble and in- 
valuable animal. 

It will be observed that no claim is here made to any 
wonderful novelty or discovery in the way of a shoe that 
will answer every purpose, and keep every horse wearing 
it in a state of health. Such an invention must be left to 
those whose practical experience is of the most limited 
character, and who fancy that the evils of shoeing are 
concentrated in the metal plate alone. It may be sufficient 
to say, in this place, that, so far as the comfort, utility, 
and well-being of the horse are concerned, the preserva- 
tion of the foot in health by abstaining from mutilating 
and deforming it with knife and rasp, is of the highest 
importance. If this be done, the shoe most appropriate for 
certain purposes demands some attention, but is really a 
matter of minor consideration. 

Preserve the hoof intact and strong, and the animal 
firill travel long and soundly in a very uncouth foot arma- 



88 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

ture ; pare and rasp it according to " improved princi- 
ples," and the most labored, expensive, and artistic device 
in the form of a shoe will not prevent discomfort, un- 
soundness, disease, and premature uselessness. 

At an early period of my professional career, I wag 
much dissatisfied with the results of shoeing as it is prac- 
tised in ordinary forges, and with the unreasonableness 
of the fashion of depriving the foot of its natural and 
most efficient protection, and was soon led to perceive that 
a vast majority of the horses so treated soon became de- 
formed and lame in their feet ; while some of the diseases 
occurring higher up in the limbs were likewise due to this 
cause. 

The rational method here inculcated was then adopted, 
and now for very many years the only preparation the 
foot has received for the shoe has been levelling the wall, 
in conformity with the direction of the limb and foot, and 
removing as much of its margin as will restore it to its 
natural length, leaving the sole, frog, bars, and heels in 
all their integrity. Such has been the treatment of the 
hoofs of the horses under my care in various parts of the 
world, and in far more trying circumstances at times, so 
far as shoeing is concerned, than are likely to occur in the 
regular work of towns ; and so strong were the hoofs, as a 
rule — such solid blocks of horn did they appear, that 
when a shoe was, by some rare chance, lost on a journey, 
there was no danger whatever to be apprehended from 
marching the horse ten, twenty, or even thirty miles, 
without it. Horses have never been pricked in nailing, 
and foot diseases, it may be said, have been all but un- 
known. The roughest roads and the sharpest stones can 
be travelled over with impunity. Nearly every hoof 
might be taken as a model, and be pronounced as perfect 
as before the animal was shod many years previously. 

This abstinence from paring and rasping, it will be 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 89 

aeen, very materially lessens the time and labor required 
in the ordinary method ; indeed, nothing can be simpler 
than the conservative principle of shoeing, and this sim- 
plicity can be effectively carried into practice with one- 
half the instruction and toil required for the popular 
mode. 

Other methods of shoeing have been devised from time 
to time, and may be briefly referred to here. 

To diminish the weight and permit a portion of the pos- 
terior part of the foot to come in direct contact with the 
ground along with the frog, a three-quarter shoe is often 
applied — the portion of iron extending from the inside 
quarter to the point of the heel being cut off, and the shoe 
at this part thinned a little. The horn left unprotected is 
never interfered with. This is an excellent shoe for sad- 
dle and carriage, and even draught horses, which may be 
employed on the worst roads while wearing it. For feet 
that have suffered very much from the effects of rasping, 
and paring, and which are liable to have bruised heels (or 
corns), its use is attended with the greatest benefit. 

The same may be said of " tips " or half-shoes. An 
unreasonable prejudice appears to exist against the use of 
these light, short plates ; but, if they are applied in appro- 
priate cases, there can be no doubt whatever that they 
are entitled to a far larger share of attention than they 
have yet received. Their very limited employment hith- 
erto may have arisen from the imperfect manner in which 
they have been used. They protect those parts of the 
wall most exposed to damage by wear, extending around 
the toe and reaching no farther than the quarters ; while 
the heels and frog, when left unpared and unrasped, are 
strong enough to meet all demands made upon them, at 
the same time they are not deprived of their physiological 
functions. 

In addition to these considerations, the diminution in 



90 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

the weight of the shoe is a matter of some importance. 
Of course, the three-quarter shoe and the tip are only re- 
quired for the fore-feet ; the hind-feet shoes, so long as 
they are level, are not over heavy, and do not wound the 
opposite limbs, may be of the ordinary pattern. On this 
difference between the management of the fore and hind 
foot we cannot too much insist. The fore-foot is particu- 
larly disposed to disease and injury ; the hind-foot is won- 
derfully exempt. So much is this the case, indeed, that 
the proper management of the first is all important, while 
the other requires but little attention. The reason of this 
is due to the fact that the horizontal body, and long, heavy 
neck and head of the horse, cause the largest proportion 
of the weight to fall upon the front pair of supporting 
columns, and, through them, upon the feet : the fore-limbs 
are those most concerned in supporting weight, the hind 
ones in propelling the body forward. Hence the necessity 
for allowing as much of the lower face of the fore-foot as 
possible to come in contact with the ground ; and hence 
the prevalence of disease in it when improper shoeing 
limits its points of contact to the narrowest dimensions. 

Various Methods of Shoeing. — Another form of shoe 
is that commonly known as the " bar shoe " — a ring or 
annular plate of metal which increases the surface of con- 
tact by resting, to a large extent, on the frog, and allow- 
ing that important body to participate in weight-bearing ; 
in this way it also relieves the heels when these are weak 
or injured. It is a very useful shoe, but the additional 
weight given to it by the bar, and the extra strain on the 
nails retaining it to the hoof, are drawbacks. 

To apply a shoe in such a manner as to allow the frog 
to receive a due amount of pressure, has always been the 
aim of those who have made the horse's foot an object of 
careful study. Even with the ordinary shoe, if it be not 
too thick nor garnished with calkins, the frog, if unmuti 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 91 

lated, in the large majority of cases will rest upon the 
ground for nearly the whole of its length, and sustain 
beneficial wear. Nearly every one of the horses at pres- 
ent in my charge, though shod with the army regulation 
shoe — a very defective model — have their frogs in this 
condition ; while all the private horses wearing the modi- 
fied shoe I have described, exhibit the frog resting for 
the whole of its length and breadth on the ground. 

But this object, with others of importance, is perfectly 
attained in what has been designated the "periplantar 
shoe and method of shoeing," introduced by Veterinary 

Surgeon Gleason, St. Louis.- Leave the hoof entirely 
in a natural condition, so far as frog, sole, and wall, 
are concerned, and imbed a narrow rim of iron, no 
thicker than the wall, around the lower circumference 
of the foot — that exposed to wear — like the iron heel of 
a man's boot, and we obtain an idea of what the peri- 
plantar method of shoeing really is. 

The principle of this method of shoeing is, physiologi- 
cally, perfectly correct. Knowing that the horse's foot is 
admirably constructed to perform certain definite functions, 
and that the hoof in ordinary condition is designed to act 
as the medium through which the most important of these 
are carried out, but that its circumference is liable to be 
broken away and worn when nudely exposed, we have 
only to substitute for a certain portion of this perishable 
horn an equivalent portion of more durable metal, and the 
hoof is secured from damage by wear, while its natural 
functions remain unimpaired. 

This novel method of shoeing has attracted so much 
attention, and has in many instances proved so beneficial 
and worthy of adoption, so far as my experience goes, that 
I venture to describe, as briefly as possible, the way in 
which it is carried into execution in the forge. 

The sole and frog, as well as the bars, are left unpared 



92 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

The crust or wall is bevelled off at the edge by the rasp, 
and by means of a special knife with a movable guide * a 
groove is made along this bevelled edge to receive the 
shoe. This groove is made a little shallower than the 
thickness of the sole, and slightly narrower than the thick- 
ness of the wall, not extending beyond the white line sep- 
arating the sole from the wall (Fig. 19). 




Fig. 19. 

Into this groove is fitted the shoe. This is a narrow, but 
somewhat deep band of iron (or, as now, a mixture of iron 
and steel, narrower at the top than the bottom, and forged 
in such a manner that its front surface follows the slope of 
the foot. It is perforated by from four to six oval nail- 
holes of small size, and if necessary may be provided with 
a clip at the toe. Its upper inner edge is rounded by the 
file, to prevent it pressing too much against the angle of 
the sole, and the ends of the branches are narrow and 
bevelled off toward the ground (Fig. 20). 

The nails are very small, and have a conical head and 
neck (Fig. 21). They must be of the best quality. 

*Knives of this kind *re manufactured and sold by nearly 
all leading hardware dealers in the United States. 



APPLYING THE SHOE. 93 

It is best to fit the shoe in a hot state, as it must have 
a level bed and follow exactly the outline of the wall. 




Fig. 20. Fig. 21. 

After it has been fitted, it is advisable to remove, by a 
small drawing-knife, a little of the horn from the angle of 
the groove in the hoof, to correspond with the rounded 
inner edge of the shoe. This insures a proper amount of 
space between the latter and the soft horn at the margin 
of the pedal bone. 

In strong hoofs, the shoe is almost entirely buried in 
the groove; but in those which have the soles flat or con- 
vex, with low heels, it is not safe to imbed it so deeply. 

Tii 3 application of the hot shoe in fitting should not ex- 
tend beyond a very few seconds. 

The shoe is nailed to the hoof in the ordinary manner 
(Fig. 22). For saddle and light carriage horses, I have 
usually found four nails — two on each side — for each shoe 
sufficient. These should be placed wide apart at the toe 
and rather close to the heel (Fig. 23, a, b). Every nail 
must be driven in sound horn, otherwise the shoe, being 
so narrow, may get the branch bent out, and nothing more 
is needed than to lay the clenches down evenly on the 
wall. No rasping is required. When the shoe is attached 
to the foot, we then perceive that a portion of the sole and 



94 



PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 



bars, and the whole of the frog, meet the ground as in the 
unshod state (Fig. 23). 




Fig. 22. 



The great advantages of this method of shoeing con- 
sist in its simplicity, when farriers have been made to un- 
derstand it ; its placing the hoof in a natural condition, so 
far as its ground-face is concerned ; the small number and 




Fig. 23. 



size of the nails required to retain it ; the lightness of the 
shoe, and the security it gives to the horse in progression. 



WINTER SHOEING. 95 

Since its introduction by M. Charlier, I have tried this 
method on a large number of horses of various sizes, and 
which have been employed for hunting, road, carriage, 
and draught, and am perfectly satisfied that it is a valua- 
ble accessory mode of defending and preserving the hoofs 
and remedying their diseases or defects. It cannot be ap- 
plied indiscriminately to every foot, and to make the 
groove in the hoof and fit the shoe accurately, requires 
some care. When the horn and metal are combined in this 
way, it is somewhat astonishing for how long a period a 
very light rim will sustain wear even on hard roads. 

I have not tried the shoe on the hind-feet, because I 
do not think it so well adapted for them ; as before men- 
tioned, the front-feet only demand all our attention. 



WINTER SHOEING. 

In such a variable climate as ours, it is not an easy 
matter to provide economically and successfully for the 
occurrence of frost and snow during the winter months, so 
far as shoeing is concerned. Some winters are so mild, 
that there is no necessity for making any difference in the 
shoe, while others are so severe, and the roads are cov- 
ered with ice for such a long period, that special appli- 
ances must be resorted to if the services of horses are to 
be made at all available. 

To be generally useful, these appliances must be cheap 
and simple. 

The quickest, cheapest, but at the same time least 
durable of these, is the "frost-nail." This is nothing 
more than the ordinary horseshoe nail, with its head flat- 
tened gradually to a thin edge. Two or three of the nails 
are withdrawn from each side of the shoe, and replaced 
by the frost-nails. The heads may be flattened in differ- 



96 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

ent directions according to circumstances. Sometimes 
the heads are of steel, when of course they are more last- 
ing. For short journeys, frost-nails are useful and easily 
available ; but as they only last for a brief period, and as 
their frequent renewal injures the hoof to some extent, 
they are only to be used when the services of the horse 
are not likely to be in great demand for any length of 
time, or when the frost promises to be very transient. 
They are best adapted for saddle and carriage horses. 
To prevent injury to the hoof, and at the same time to 
obtain all the advantages of frost-nails, I have often, in 
the winter season, had extra holes punched in the shoes 
— one at the extremity of each heel, and one on each side 
of the toe. These nail-holes were large, and were stamped 
so obliquely outward, that the frost-nails, when the occa- 
sion required them, could be passed through them and 
lapped firmly over the edge of the shoe without interfer- 
ing with the hoof. They may be made altogether of soft 
steel, the heads alone being tempered. I have found this 
plan most convenient and effective, as the hoof and shoe 
are not disturbed, and the nails can be renewed as often 
as may be necessary. 

The usual plan is to remove the shoes from the hoofs 
and give them sharpened calkins, and it may be toe-pieces 
also sharp. This is not a good fashion if it has to be often 
repeated, as the hoofs are damaged by the frequent nail- 
ing, the horses are apt to be lamed, and the shoes to be- 
come loose. It is for the time being, however, very effec 
tive. When the calks and toe-pieces are only made of 
iron, and if the ground be not covered with a sufficient 
layer of snow to protect them to some extent, they soon 
become blunted, and the shoes then require to be taken 
off and the process repeated. To remedy this, if time 
permits, it is an excellent plan to weld in the calkin, or 
toe-piece, or on the face of the shoe, a piece of steel (Fi^s. 



WINTER SHOEING. 



97 



24, 25 a), which, when sharpened and tempered, lasts a 
very considerable lime. 




_ 




Fig. 24. 



Fig. 25. 



In sharpening the calkins, regard must be had to their 
situation — that on the outside heel maybe flattened across 
the branch of the shoe (Fig. 26), but that on the inside 
must be drawn as much as possible from the outer margin 
of the branch (Fig. 27), in order to avoid treads and 
wounds to the opposite foot. 





Fig. 27 



As a rule, it is better that toe-pieces of the same 
height as the calkins be used on all shoes, to keep the 
foot and limb from being injured. 

The Canadian shoe, made of steel, concave on the 
ground-surface, with the concavity forming a sharp edge 
on the margin, is very useful when there is a thick layer 
of ice with snow. 

But perhaps the most useful and expeditious method 
of making the horse useful on ice-covered roads, is by the 
adoption of the screw studs. For these, each new shoe 
at the commencement of the winter has a circular hole 
punched at the heels, and another at the toe. This is 
screwed, and into it is fitted, for ordinary wear, a flat- 
headed stud (Fig. 28), which is turned in with a wrench. 
These studs last for some time, and preserve the shoe 



93 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

from wear — when worn nearly to the level of the shoe, 
they are removed and replaced by new ones. Should 







Fig. 28. Fig. 29. 

frost set in suddenly, the flat-headed studs have only to 
be removed by the groom when the horse is required, and 
sharp steel ones substituted. This can be done in a few 
minutes. 

The usual shape of the sharp stud is that of a wedge, 
the screwed portion being much smaller than that pro- 
jecting beyond the shoe. This is a faulty conformation, 
which leads to the stud frequently working itself loose 
and falling out, or breaking off at the neck, leaving the 
screwed portion in the shoe. 

For some years I have remedied this defect by em- 
ploying steel frost T studs of a conical or pyramidal shape, 
and having the portion screwed into the shoe as thick as 
that projecting from it (Fig. 29). This pattern is not at 
all liable to turn round and fall out on meeting the 
ground ; while, being the same thickness throughout, 
there is no check at the screw to weaken the stud ; con- 
sequently it does not break if carefully forged and tem- 
pered. 

Of all the appliances designed to enable horses to 
travel safely on ice, without taking them to the forge, or 
requiring the services of the farrier, none have stood the 
test of trial so satisfactorily as this screw stud. I have 
experimented with all the recent inventions, but have 
found them either too complicated or expensive, not fit 



SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS. 99 

for severe work, or else only adapted for shoes of one 
pattern. 



SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS. 

Shoeing is a powerful auxiliary in the hands of a com- 
petent farrier for remedying the natural defects which are 
not unfrequently observed in the position of the limbs 
and feet of horses; while with the scientific veterinary 
surgeon it is no less a most potent aid in curing or pallia- 
ting certain maladies or deformities of a special character. 

Perhaps the most frequent defects the farrier has to 
contend with, are turning out or turning in the toe of 
the foot ; both of which are not only unsightly, but are 
productive of more or less injury to the limb from the 
unequal manner in which some of its parts have then to 
sustain the weight of the body. 

To rectify the leg or foot when the toe turns outward, 
the hoof should be levelled as before described, the mar- 
gin of the wall at the outside toe and back nearly to the 
quarter being well reduced and rounded. The clip is to 
be drawn up nearer to the inside than the middle of the 
toe ; the shoe to be fitted close to the outside and quar- 
ter, but the inside, from the quarter to the heel, should be 
more full than usual. In the course of several shoeings, 
by this reduction of the wall at the outside of the hoof 
and the fitting of the shoe, a most noticeable improve- 
ment will be effected. 

When the toe is turned inward, precisely the reverse 
treatment must be followed: the inside toe must be re- 
duced, the clip of the shoe formed nearer the outside toe, 
and the shoe itself fitted close at the inside toe, but wide 
at the outside. In both cases the shoes ought to be of 
the same thickness throughout. 



LefC. 



100 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

" Cutting," or striking and wounding the inner side 
of the leg with the opposite foot, is sometimes a cause of 
much annoyance. It may be due to weakness, fatigue, or 
to a sudden change in the manner of shoeing ; in which 
cases it is only temporary. But it may also arise from 
malformed limbs or faulty action, and these defects may 
be so exaggerated as to be scarcely, if at all, remedied by 
shoeing alone. 

The usual part of the hoof with which the horse 
strikes the opposite limb, is the inside toe or quarter. 
Whichever of these regions it may be, the hoof must con- 
tinue to be levelled at right angles to the direction of the 
pastern, and a shoe equally thick throughout applied, the 
only difference between it and the ordinary shoe being 
the removal of a portion of the iron from the margin at a 
point corresponding to the portion that causes the injury 
to the opposite limb ; or the shoe, instead of being nar- 
rowed in the branch at this part, may be straightened, so 
as to lie within the hoof. No nails are to be inserted here ; 
they may be placed in front of, and behind the striking 
portion — at the toe and heel. The hoof, after the appli- 
cation of the shoe, may then be reduced at the quarter 
with the rasp, to diminish its convexity, and thus avert 
" cutting " or striking. 

The periplantar method of shoeing is well adapted for 
horses that " cut." 

Some horses have the awkward habit of lying like a 
cow with one or both fore-legs doubled up at the knee, 
and the elbow resting on the heel of the foot. Should 
the ordinary shoes be worn, it almost inevitably follows 
that the ends of the branches pressing upon the elbow will 
cause the formation of a large unsightly tumor, which 
may in time become an abscess or ulcerate. The pi even- 
tion of this is in the hands of the farrier, who has only to 
shorten and smoothly round the extremities of the shoe, 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 101 

so as to keep them within the hoof. Most frequently it 
is the inside heel, in which case a three-quarter shoe at 
once remedies the evil 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S 

FOOT. 

After what has been said with regard to the manage- 
ment of the horse's foot in shoeing, there is but little to 
add concerning its general treatment ; as shoeing influ- 
ences more or less, for good or for evil, the general con- 
dition of that organ, and renders its ordinary manage- 
ment either a matter of much or of trifling moment. 

When it has been robbed of its horn by the farrier, 
and brought to such an artificial and abnormal state as 
we have indicated, then its preservation in any thing like 
a healthy or efficient condition is a matter of no small 
difficulty, and appears sometimes to demand very curious 
and often by no means reasonable practices on the part 
of the groom. 

The most common are : applying to the face of the 
wall tar, oil, fish-oil, or advertised mixtures of various 
kinds to make the horn grow, prevent brittleness, cure 
diseases, etc. ; and to the sole plates of leather, bolsters 
of tow steeped in tar, filthy applications of cow-dung, 
mud or clay, and other matters. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that to the unpared and 
unrasped hoof these are not only unnecessary, but some 
of them even positively hurtful. Oil, for instance, not 
only renders the wall brittle, but loosens the nails; 
while cow-dung, from the ammonia it contains, destroys 
the frogs. 

The unmutilated hoof is easily kept in health. All 
it requires is keeping cool, and moistening occasionally 



102 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

with cold water during hot weather or after severe exer* 
tion. When a journey has been long continued and 
severe, the horse should not be immediately put into a 
stable, but ought to be walked gently about until the 
circulation of blood in the feet has had time to accommo- 
date itself to the altered conditions of rest. By this means 
laminitis (inflammation of the feet) is averted. 

In washing the hoofs a water-brush should not bo 
employed, but a soft sponge, with a view to prevent the 
translucent horn on the front of the wall being destroyed. 

The sides and cleft of the frog may be cleaned out 
occasionally with a blunt picker, though if sound this is 
scarcely required. 

Nothing more is needed, so far as the every-day stable 
management of the foot is concerned, except to caution 
the groom against cutting away the hair immediately 
above the coronet, as this acts like a thatch in preserving 
the frog-band at its commencement from the effects of 
perspiration and moisture. 

Much harm is done to horses' legs and feet by the 
somewhat cruel custom of keeping them, while in the 
stable, constantly tied up in one position in stalls with 
sloping floors. This fashion is not only entirely opposed 
to the animal's natural habits — for the horse loves to 
move about and change his attitude — but the limbs and 
feet, more especially the front ones, are, instead of being 
rested, greatly fatigued ; and this brings about alterations 
which may be none the less serious because they are not 
immediate in their effects. 

A loose box, even if no larger than a stall, with a 
level floor, is infinitely preferable, and by all means to bo 
commended to those who place some value on the sound- 
ness of body, eyesight, and limbs of their horses, as well 
us on their comfort. 



STREETS AND ROADS. 1Q3 



STREETS AND ROADS. 

The roads over which horses travel have also rnucn 
influence for good or evil on the condition of the feet and 

legs. In the majority of the towns and cities in this 
country, it would most certainly appear that consider- 
ations for the safety, comfort, or efficiency of the thou- 
sands of horses in daily use were altogether lost sight 
of or neglected in constructing the public thorough- 
fares. 

Masses of the hardest and closest-grained stone are 
laid down in most streets in such a fashion, that they seem 
as if purposely designed to afford an insecure foothold, 
and prevent the horse's strength being profitably utilized. 
These paved streets — always a source of danger to the 
animals — while hindering them from employing their 
force to the best advantage, are also particularly injurious 
to the legs and feet, from the incessant efforts made to 
maintain a footing. More especially is this the case in 
wet weather, when they are covered with greasy mud, 
and in summer when their dry smooth surface becomes 
leaded. It is needless to say, that no kind of metal de- 
fence to the hoof will for many days insure a firm foot- 
hold on such roads ; and nothing but a metal defence has 
ever been found suitable to the horse's foot. 

Every device has been tried to meet the demands for 
travelling with safety on such paved streets, and none 
have proved successful. Nor is it at all likely that future 
inventions will meet these demands ; the basaltic or gra* 
nitic surface, perfectly smooth, and offering a most insecure 
surface for fixing the foot during movement, is not at all 
adapted for horse traffic. 

From the durability of these roads, they may be, to 
those who have to pay for their construction and mainte- 
nance, more economical than others on which horses can 



104 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

journey with ease and without risk of falling down; but 
they are far from being economical to those whose carriages 
and wagons traverse them. A portion of the horse's mo- 
tive power is devoted to maintaining his foothold, and the 
fear induced by this insecurity operates against what re- 
mains being applied as profitably as it ought to be. So 
that less is gained in the economy of construction and du- 
rability, and in the easier traction of vehicles, than is lost 
in the injury done to the horse's extremities, and the 
waste of power required to maintain the equilibrium. 

Even more injurious to feet and limbs is the barba- 
rous, slovenly, and stupid method prevailing in this coun- 
try of repairing macadamized roads — or what are intended 
for them — by depositing a heap of angular stones m a 
loose, rugged layer of uncertain depth, and compelling 
horses and carriages to travel over them until they are 
imbedded in a very irregular manner in the soil beneath 
them. Such a practice is not only extremely short-sight- 
ed on the part of those who make or repair roads in this 
manner — as these roads can neither be durable nor very 
serviceable — but also deserves the severest censure as 
most cruel and destructive to horses. Not only is the 
labor in drawing a carriage over such a surface immense- 
ly increased, and the horse's strength thereby expended, 
but the unstable footing afforded by the loose masses 
of stone throws a great strain in every direction upon 
the legs and feet, and not unfrequently the animal is 
thrown down and gets seriously injured or blemished for 
life. 

If the hoofs chance to be pared and rasped according 
to the groom or farrier's " improved principles," then the 
consequences are greatly aggravated. 

Legislation should be appealed to, to put an end to 
such a disgraceful method of road making or mending, 
which is only worthy of the most uncivilized countrv. 



INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 105 

The best mode of constructing and repairing our public 
thoroughfares and highways, with a view not only to 
economy, but to the safety and comfort of horses, is a 
matter that deserves serious attention. 

Taken in connection with our subject, it is one that 
cannot be overlooked. We may preserve and defend 
the horse's foot to the best of our ability in our forges 
and stables, but if the roads over which he travels are not 
adapted to his employment, our exertions on his behalf 
can only be partially successful. 



INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 

The foregoing instructions relative to shoeing are, in 
substance, those which I have been in the habit, for sev- 
eral years, of laying before the farriers in the different 
regiments in which I have served, and with an amount of 
success which amply rewarded me for the trouble I took 
to see that they were carried into practice. Not only have 
my own duties been considerably lightened in the greatly 
diminished number of lame and unserviceable horses, but 
the labors of the farriers have been considerably abbre- 
viated and simplified, and by their being able to under- 
stand the reasons for acting as I desired, their intelligence 
was awakened, and they took an interest in carrying out 
my views. 

In our army this is not always the case. The subject 
of farriery is often looked upon much as it is in civil life 
— as a matter that concerns the farrier only, and tradi- 
tion and routine extensively prevail. In saying this, 
however, I do not intend for a moment to insinuate that 
the army veterinary surgeons are averse to giving theiT 
attention to a most important, though it may appear a 
minor, part of their duty. On the contrary, many of them 



106 PRACTICAL HOBSESHOEING. 

do so, and with the greatest advantage to the service; 
but there is not the same encouragement offered either 
to veterinary surgeons or farriers in this respect as there 
is in Continental armies. In t\ie French army, for in- 
stance, there are schools and professors of farriery, the 
most notable of these being at the cavalry school of 
Saumur. In these, the farriers are regularly trained to 
a uniform and approved system before being posted to 
different regiments, and direct encouragement is given 
to these men by the institution of competitions, in which 
the most successful are rewarded by medals and gifts 
of money. 

But not only does the French Government bestow 
some c#re in the advancement of farriery in the army; 
it publishes free of charge the views, and the advances 
made in the art, of its veterinary surgeons and farriers, 
and distributes the pamphlets to all who may ask for a 
copy. It stimulates and fosters farriers' conventions, 
which are open to all who may care to attend. 

At these conventions, not only are models of shoes 
and shod hoofs exhibited, but the farriers — civil and 
military — are tested in the various operations of far- 
riery on the spot, by shoeing saddle, carriage, and 
draught horses, draught and pack mules and oxen. A 
large number of gold, silver, and bronze medals, as 
well as considerable money, are given away in prizes. 

These meetings cannot but effect much good, by 
attracting attention to this very important subject, and 
encouraging good workmen. 

In Belgium there are also meetings, and, if I remem- 
ber aright, farriers who attend them receive instruc- 
tion from properly-qualified veterinary surgeons, who 
are authorized to grairt certificates of proficiency. 

In both countries, as well as in Germany, the stud- 
ents at the veterinary schools are taught principles and 



INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 107 

practice of shoeing, and this instruction is of great value 
to them in after-life. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that in this country 
nothing of the kind is attempted. 

The Government does nothing to improve or encour- 
age veterinary science in any way ; hence the low state 
of this important branch of medicine and rural economy 
in America and hence the enormous losses she has sus- 
tained for so many years. Hence, also, the degraded and 
barbarous condition of farriery, even in our cities and 
towns. With the exception of, on very rare occasions, 
the distribution of a prize or two at some local agricul- 
tural show to farriers, who imagine that paring and rasp- 
ing, and a fantastically wrought piece of iron, constitute 
the acme of shoeing, the subject is thought unworthy of 
notice. Even at the veterinary schools during my ma- 
triculation, it was dismissed in a brief lecture of an hour, 
and then pathological shoeing was chiefly referred to. 
Nothing of the principles or practice was ever taught. 

When the Veterinary Colleges are so indifferent to a 
matter so closely related to the comfort and efficiency of 
the horse, we cannot wonder that veterinary surgeons, as 
a rule, and farriers, take but little interest in shoeing. 

The remedy for this, of course, should be, in the first 
place, applied to the teaching schools. The anatomy and 
physiology of the horse's foot, its management in health 
and disease, and the principles and practice of shoeing, 
ought to be thoroughly inculcated. 

It would be most advantageous if, when this course 
was adopted, farriers could be prevailed upon to attend, 
and, after due examination as to their competency to prac- 
tise their art in a rational manner, they were to receive 
certificates of proficiency as in Belgium — these certificates 
carrying with them similar advantages to those that the 
diploma of surgery confers upon the surgeon. 



108 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING. 

In default of this, veterinary surgeons properly quali- 
fied for the duty, and possessing the necessary conve- 
nience and opportunity, might be induced to receive and 
instruct apprentices iu farriery, granting them authorized 
certificates when judged to be fit to practise the art. 

Agricultural meetings should also be made the means 
of instructing farriers in shoeing, and of stimulating com- 
petition in the districts in which they are held. Of course 
it is a sine qud non that the instructors and judges should 
themselves understand the subject thoroughly. 

These are the only means by which, I believe, the art 
of farriery can be improved in this country, where nearly 
all improvement is left to private enterprise. A profound 
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's 
foot is not absolutely necessary to the farrier. What I 
have sketched out on these subjects in this essay, I have 
generally found sufficient to enable my farriers to com- 
prehend the character of the organ they were called upon 
to protect and preserve, and this much was easily taught 
them in a short time. I have always had more difficulty 
in making them unlearn their unreasonable practices than 
acquiring those which were novel, though easier ; and my 
chief antagonists in all improvements have been the igno- 
rant grooms and coachmen — the lovers of well pared and 
rasped hoofs, oiled or blacked like a boot ; hot stables ; 
physic ; bearing-reins ; blinkers ; cruppers ; powerful bits ; 
and every thing, in fact, unnatural and injurious to the 
horse. 

(i) 

THE END. 



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